Religion Is A Unity Of Spiritual And Physical - 1093 Words

â€Å"Religion is a system that proclaims an unseen order, and that our ultimate good lies in aligning ourselves with the unseen order.† Buddhism The truth in how the unseen order in Buddhism is the structure of human reality. It is the truth about ourselves and the truth in which we are as human beings. The truths in ourselves will often be unseen or unidentifiable often because our minds are distorted. As humans, we have these natural distortions and have a hard time seeing things in a clear perspective. Buddhism does assert that a supreme goodness does lie within a harmoniously level of adjustment within ourselves to see this hidden truth in which we would not see normally. In Buddhism, there is a path that is laid for harmonious adjustment and what it does consider is the truth in regards to the reality in our minds. In Buddhism life is regarded as a unity of spiritual and physical. Manifestations of the spiritual, the seen and the unseen are all a part of the same universal law of life. These manifestations of our spiritual and physical lives are one and of equableness. Buddhist meditation consists of developing a capacit y in our minds to rest and not be disturbed, on singly a perception of an object. Secondly, Buddhists meditation aims at the understanding of the true nature of things. Insightful meditation is about understanding the nature of the world and letting go. Bhagavad Gita 3.33 Even the wise man acts In accordance with his inner nature All beings follow theirShow MoreRelatedComparative Religions Encyclopedia Of The Jewish People1277 Words   |  6 Pages Comparative Religions Encyclopedia Kenneth Ayres period 1 A. Abraham: Abraham and the individuals that followed him and believed what he believed, were the founders of judaism. The history of the jewish people goes back to the bronze age, somewhere in the middle east. God had provided a nomad leader for the people, and he was named Abraham. Allah: Allah is literally the islamic word for god. Allah is the only god of the Islamic religion. Allah has no gender, and allah is used as respectedRead MoreThe s Belief System A Worldview1744 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Based upon one’s belief system a worldview is developed. This is reflective of the religion an individual associates with. This religion, gives meaning to life, allowing one to gain an understanding of the world. Since this understanding can be interpreted in various ways, people develop differing worldviews. Noting the differences between various forms of faith is extremely important in the health care field in order to promote healing within the patient. The health care professionalsRead MoreThe Spiritual Responsibility Of The Healthcare1608 Words   |  7 Pagesphysicians. 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Accoutning Test Bank Free Essays

The Financial Accounting Standards Board employs a â€Å"due process† system which (Points: 5) has all CPAs in the United States vote on a new Statement. enables interested parties to express their views on issues under consideration. identifies the accounting issues that are the most important. We will write a custom essay sample on Accoutning Test Bank or any similar topic only for you Order Now requires that all accountants receive a copy of financial standards. 2. (TCO A) The IASB: (Points: 5) governs accounting standards in the U. S. is working on a convergence project with the FASB. sets the accounting standards for only European countries. lays only a minor part in accounting rule making throughout the world. 3. (TCO A) International GAAP, or i-GAAP: (Points: 5) has different standards than under U. S. GAAP. has some commonality with U. S. GAAP in many areas. is accepted by many countries throughout the world all of the above are true. 4. (TCO A) Information is neutral if it: (Points: 5) provides benefits which are at least equal to the costs of its preparation. can be compared with similar information about an enterprise at other points in time. would have no impact on a decision maker. is free from bias toward a predetermined result. . (TCO A) Which of the following elements of financial statements is not a component of comprehensive income? (Points: 5) Revenues Dist ributions to owners Losses Expenses 6. (TCO A) Issuance of common stock for cash affects which basic element of financial statements? (Points: 5) Revenues Losses Liabilities Equity 7. (TCO A) Which basic element of financial statements arise from peripheral or incidental transactions? (Points: 5) Assets Liabilities Gains Expenses 8. (TCO A) Which basic assumption may not be followed when a firm in bankruptcy reports financial results? Points: 5) Economic entity assumption Going concern assumption Periodicity assumption Monetary unit assumption 9. (TCO A) What is the quality of information that enables users to better forecast future operations? (Points: 5) Reliability. Materiality. Comparability. Relevance. 10. (TCO A) Financial information exhibits the characteristic of consistency when (Points: 5) expenses are reported as charges against revenue in the period in which they are paid. accounting entities give accountable events the same accounting treatment from period to period. xt raordinary gains and losses are not included on the income statement. accounting procedures are adopted which give a consistent rate of net income 11. (TCO A) Which of the following is true with regard to the element â€Å"comprehensive income†? (Points: 5) includes all changes in equity during a period except those resulting from investments by owners and distributions to owners. is optional for financial statement preparers. is not in accordance with GAAP. came into law with the passing of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Not 100% sure about 11 12. TCO A) Which of the following basic accounting assumptions is threatened by the existence of severe inflation in the economy? (Points: 5) Monetary unit assumption. Periodicity assumption. Going-concern assumption. Economic entity assumption. 13. (TCO D) One criticism not normally aimed at a balance sheet prepared using current accounting and reporting standards is (Points: 5) failure to reflect current value information. the extensive use of separate classifications. an extensive use of estimates. failure to include items of financial value that cannot be recorded objectively. 4. (TCO D) The amount of time that is expected to elapse until an asset is realized or otherwise converted into cash is referred to as (Points: 5) solvency. financial flexibility. liquidity. exchangeability. 15. (TCO D) The net assets of a business are equal to (Points: 5) current assets minus current liabilities. total assets plus total liabilities. total assets minus total stockholders’ equity. none of these. 16. (TCO D) Houghton Company has the following items: common stock, $720,000; treasury stock, $85,000; deferred taxes, $100,000 and retained earnings, $313,000. What total amount should Houghton Company report as stockholders’ equity? (Points: 5) $848,000 $948,000 $1,048,000 $1,118,000 17. (TCO D) The current assets section of the balance sheet should include (Points: 5) machinery patents goodwill inventory 18. (TCO D) An example of an item which is not an element of working capital is: (Points: 5) accrued interest on notes receivable. goodwill. goods in process. temporary investments. 19. (TCO D) Which of the following is not an acceptable major asset classification? (Points: 5) Current assets Long-term assets Property, plant, and equipment Deferred charges 0. (TCO D) The presentation of long-term liabilities in the balance sheet should disclose: (Points: 5) maturity dates interest rates conversion rights all of the above 21. (TCO D) Equity or debt securities held to finance future construction of additional manufacturing plants should be classified on the balance sheet as: (Points: 5) current assets. property, plant and equipment. i ntangible assets. long-term investments. 22. (TCO D) Treasury stock should be reported as a(n) (Points: 5) current asset. investment other asset. reduction of stockholder’s equity. How to cite Accoutning Test Bank, Papers

Child and Adolescent Nursing Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Child and Adolescent Nursing. Answer: Introduction Nursingis a key domain of health care, where the nursing staffs are responsible for ensuring the maximum health benefits and satisfaction of the patients. In this context, nurses are responsible for diagnosing the actual health issues of the patient followed by the prioritization of the key health issues, based on which the care plan is developed (Jeffries Jeffries, 2012). For this, effective communication skills are needed, through which nurses can communicate with the patient and patients family regarding patients health and other requirements. In this assignment, the focus is 10 years old boy and hisnursing diagnosis procedure, according to the standard nursing practice. With the help of clinical reasoning cycle, the case would be evaluated. Clinical reasoning cycle Considering the patient Jack is 10 years old boy, who have been brought to the emergency department by his father Andrew, upon falling from his bike, which caused injury to his left arm. Upon assessment, his arm was shown to be swollen and he appeared to be in considerable pain. For this Jack need a thorough assessment based on which the action plan would be built for him (Doenges, Moorhouse Murr, 2016). Collect cues The patient Jack is assessed thoroughly by the nurse and his vital signs were measures. For instance, upon admission, his respiratory rate was 32; oxygen saturation was 99; temperature was 37 degree C; with systolic pressure 136 mmHg, which was slightly high; capillary refill was less than 3 second; and pain score was 8, measured by FLACC pain scale. In respect to other vital signs, the blood pressure and pain score has been shown to be high enough (Doenges Moorhouse, 2012). Process information (Prioritizing initial assessment and nursing management) Jack has been fallen from his bike, while attempting to jump, causing a severe injury to his left arm. He has been shown to cry constantly, showing the evidence of his pain, which was measured to be 8 on pain score. He is restless and screaming due to pain, which has a relationship with his slightly high BP. Thus, while prioritizing his health issues, pain management would be the first concern. Moreover, upon initial assessment the triage nurse advised that surgery may be needed. For this neurovascular assessment and preparing Jack and his family are other two key priorities (Nieswiadomy Bailey, 2017). Identify issues/ problems Severe pain Pain management is a key issue for Jack, as upon admission, as the key constrain for Jack is his severe pain on his left arm. Swollen arm It is an important assessment and key constrain for Jack, as his left arm has been shown a significant swallowing, indicating towards neurovascular injury. Lack of knowledge regarding surgery Upon reviewing Jacks case and completing his initial assessment, Jack has been advised regarding the possibility of undergoing a surgery, for which neither Jack, nor his father was prepared. Thus, preparing them for Jacks surgery is crucial (Urden et al., 2017). Establish goal Pain management (NANDA Diagnosis- Domain 12 comfort) Take action Communication strategies with Jack and family Jack has undergone a severe injury on his left arm, which may need surgery. Thus, the nurses need to communicate properly with the patient as well as his parents, in order to ensure that they are also communicating freely with the health care facilities, to convey their needs. For this, a trustworthy relationship with Jack and his parents should be built by the nurse (Butcher et al., 2013). The nurse should show respect, dignity and empathy, while interacting with them, to ensure that their opinion and perceptions regarding Jacks condition are valued. The nurse is also liable to make them understand the need for the surgery, the pros and cons of the medical procedure, while collecting their consents for these. Use of paediatric pain scales in pain assessment In Jacks case, the paediatric pain scale that has been used for assessing Jacks pain is FLACC scale, which includes the assessment of face, legs, activity, cry and consolability scale. For each element of the scale, the score of 0 to 10 is provided, based on the childs condition. This pain scale would help to identify the intensity of his pain, according to which specific group of pain medication would be administered (Gordon, 2014). Upon injury, unlike an adult, a child may not be able to express his actual feeling or degree of pain he is undergoing. Thus, in order to confirm the degree of pain, the scale is suitable to be used for Jack. Jack scored 8 in this pain scale, indicting a massive pain. Pharmacology of analgesics for Jack As Jack has been scored 8 in FLACC pain scale, indicating severe pain, the initial responsibility of the nurse is to convey the information to Jacks physician and administer him with a pain medication, according to the physicians consultation. Considering Jacks young age, Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug like Ibuprofen should be administer to Jack, as it targets inflammation is also a concern for Jack (Al-Shaer, Hill Anderson, 2011). Initially, the dosage may be 600 mg trice daily, which may be reduced to 200-400 mg, based on his progress. Non-pharmacological methods of pain relief There are several non-pharmacological procedures for relieving Jacks pain. These include, interactive distraction, like showing his favourite toy, singing a song to him, allowing him to sit on his fathers or care givers lap; changing the position of Jacks arm frequently; continuously encouraging and praising him for his pain tolerance, giving relaxing massage, continuously providing support through building an homely environment and allowing his dear ones to give him spiritual support (Gulanick Myers, 2013). Neurovascular assessment The purpose of neurovascular assessment is to assess the adequacy of nerve function and blood circulation to different parts of the body, for detecting signs and symptoms of potential complications, arose as a result of Jacks injury. In this context, besides pain, other elements of the assessment are peripheral pulses, pallor, paresthesia and paralysis. Jacks pulse was mild, showing normal arterial flow (James, Nelson Ashwill, 2014). The next element is pallor, i.e. observation of skin colour. Jack was shown pale, indicating reduced blood circulation surrounding the area of injury. In this context, it is important to identify whether neurovascular and circulatory functions are normal or not. If the surrounding area of the injury is cool, it can be interpreted that the blood circulation is hampered. The next element is paresthesia, feeling of a sensation of numbness, tingling or prickling. However, in Jacks case, he had not lost sensation in his arm, as he cried out in pain, when the nurse attempted to move his arm a little (Johnston?Walker Hardcastle, 2011). The final element is loss of movement, i.e. paralysis, although no sign of paralysis was shown in Jacks case, rather he was feeling significant sensation and pain in his arm, which was not experienced, in case of paralysis. Based on the assessment, Jack was advised for surgery. Preparing Jack and his family for surgery Jacks triage nurse has been advised that based on his injury, Jack may need to undergo a surgery. However, being aware about the need for surgery, Jack and his parents may be nervous regarding the fate of the surgery and the post surgical normal health status of Jack. For this, the nursing staffs need to prepare the patient as well as the family members regarding his surgery; i.e. the type of surgery, the need for the surgery, the pros and cons of the surgery; whether there is health risk for Jack related to the surgery, the precautions needed the post surgical requirements for Jacks injury healing (Potts, Mandleco, 2012). While providing information regarding the surgery, the nurse should also provide contentious empathy and support to the family, encouraging them to understand the positive aspects of thee treatment procedure. The consent for the surgery would also be collected in written format from Jacks parents, for avoiding ethical concerns. Health promotion (Growth and development achievements of school aged child) For enhancing awareness off Jacks parents, a health promotion plan would be created for them, where the growth and development achievements of school aged child would be conveyed to them, in order to ensure that they have provided all the resources to Jack to achieve all the milestone in his growth and development period. For instance, in case of Jack, who is 10 years old, according to the Stages of Development theory by Erik Erikson, Jack is undergoing the stage of Industry vs. Inferiority (Hockenberry, Wilson Rodgers, 2016). At this stage of life, children busily learn to be competent and productive or feel inferior and unable to do anything well. In this context, his parents need to provide him more support not to feel inferior to his surrounding world, while addressing his additional physical needs for growth. Evaluation of outcomes The outcomes of pain management, surgery and continuous support would help Jack to heal his pain and injury faster. However, he also needs contentious support from the health care staffs. The non-pharmacological pain relief procedures would be helpful for Jack, helping him to cope with the situation (Hockenberry Wilson, 2014). Reflection Dealing with Jacks case, it has been revealed that nursing staffs needs to provide additional care, while handling a child with massive injury. It has also been revealed that pain assessment scales has a significant role in identifying appropriate degree of pain in paediatric care (Oliveira Lopes et al., 2012). Conclusion In this assignment, the case of 10 years old boy Jack, has been concentrated. Jack experienced injury in his left arm and with the help of clinical reasoning cycle, the key diagnosis issues has been identified for Jack, based on which appropriate care plan has been provided in this assignment. References Al-Shaer, D., Hill, P. D., Anderson, M. A. (2011). Nurses' knowledge and attitudes regarding pain assessment and intervention.Medsurg Nursing,20(1), 7. Butcher, H. K., Bulechek, G. M., Dochterman, J. M. M., Wagner, C. (2013).Nursing Interventions Classification (NIC)-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. de Oliveira Lopes, M. V., da Silva, V. M., de Araujo, T. L. (2012). Methods for establishing the accuracy of clinical indicators in predicting nursing diagnoses.International journal of nursing knowledge,23(3), 134-139. Doenges, M. E., Moorhouse, M. F. (2012).Application of nursing process and nursing diagnosis: an interactive text for diagnostic reasoning. FA Davis. Doenges, M. E., Moorhouse, M. F., Murr, A. C. (2016).Nursing diagnosis manual: Planning, individualizing, and documenting client care. FA Davis. Gordon, M. (2014).Manual of nursing diagnosis. Jones Bartlett Publishers. Gulanick, M., Myers, J. L. (2013).Nursing Care Plans-E-Book: Nursing Diagnosis and Intervention. Elsevier Health Sciences. Hockenberry, M. J., Wilson, D. (2014).Wong's Nursing Care of Infants and Children-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. Hockenberry, M. J., Wilson, D., Rodgers, C. C. (2016).Wong's Essentials of Pediatric Nursing-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. James, S. R., Nelson, K., Ashwill, J. (2014).Nursing Care of Children-E-Book: Principles and Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences. Jeffries, P. R., Jeffries, P. R. (2012).Simulation in nursing education: From conceptualization to evaluation. National League for Nursing. Johnston?Walker, E., Hardcastle, J. (2011). Neurovascular assessment in the critically ill patient.Nursing in critical care,16(4), 170-177. Nieswiadomy, R. M., Bailey, C. (2017).Foundations of nursing research. Pearson. Potts, N. L., Mandleco, B. L. (2012).Pediatric nursing: Caring for children and their families. Cengage Learning. Urden, L. D., Stacy, K. M., Lough, M. E. (2017).Critical Care Nursing-E-Book: Diagnosis and Management. Elsevier Health Sciences. Watson, J. (2011).Nursing. University Press of Colorado.

Jane Eyre Settings Essay Example

Jane Eyre Settings Essay Jane Eyre Essay Jane Eyre, a Gothic novel by Charlotte Bronte, tells a story of a beauty and a beast. Jane Eyre grows up an orphaned girl in Victorian England who does not know love in her cruel aunts household; after a few years her aunt sends her to a school where they abuse Jane further. After spending eight years as a student of Lowood and two as a teacher, she takes a nanny position where she meets Mr. Rochester, and sparks begin to fly. Bronte divides Janes story into three significant sections, which have a different effect on Janes life as seen at Gateshead, Lowood, and Thornfield . Janes spends her early life in the clutches of her aunt in Gateshead, a house that Jane experiences most of her loveless years in. After leaving the merciless Gateshead, Jane comes to Lowood School expecting little, but while there she begins to experience her first taste of love, mixed with unkindness from the insufferable Mr. Brocklehurst. Having learned and endured much, Jane arrives at Thornfield looking forward to her next life of servitude; however, while at Thornfield, her life takes a turn for the better, finally granting her the happiness she deserves all these years. Gateshead, Lowood, and Thornfield have a significant role in Jane Eyres life, they all impact her as a person importantly, each in a different way. Gateshead hosts an unloving family that do nothing but hurt Jane, Lowood is a school that practices rigid and harsh rules but allows Jane to experience love for the first time, and Thornfield has the biggest impact on Jane, giving her to have a happy ending. Jane Eyre, an abused, neglected, unloved orphan sent to three very different places over the course of her predominantly unhappy life; each place affects her greatly, and each for an extremely different reason. We will write a custom essay sample on Jane Eyre Settings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Jane Eyre Settings specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Jane Eyre Settings specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Light and its Affect on Sleep essays

Light and its Affect on Sleep essays A good nights sleep is desired by nearly everyone. It has been learned by researchers that healthier sleep habits can promote work efficiency, better mood, and improved memory. Certain factors and circumstances need to be present or absent in order for one to obtain a good nights sleep. One important factor is light. Light has been known to affect people in both psychological and physical ways. Doctors recommend it in the morning, and say that individuals need to have daily exposure to bright and natural sunlight for at least 30 minutes. The exposure to light stimulates the brain and prepares an individual for the day ahead. However, lights are disruptive at night, and do not allow the brain to properly go into a full state of sleep. Psychology Professor Ralph Mistlberger has been studying the effects of light on sleep, and believes that light influences the neural activity, but that there are times of the day when people can't be exposed to light, night time being one of them (Simon Fraser News, May 18, 2000, Vol. 18, No. 2). Researchers also say sudden exposure to light can upset a sleeping individual's 'body clock,' even if sleep continues uninterrupted (Science, (1998; 279:1358-1360). This leaves one feeling tired in the morning, and unable to carry out the days objectives in a successful manner. In a study of circadian maladaption by Todd S. Horowitz, Brian E. Cade, Jeremy M. Wolfe, and Charles A. Czeisler, keeping out as much light as possible while sleeping was found to contribute to the achievement of a healthy sleep and work schedule. This will ultimately lead to better performance at work during the day. We will conduct an experiment in an attempt to prove our hypothesis that any type of light, either continuous or flashing, during sleep is detrimental and will produce a negative effect later in the day. ...

Hermes, God of the Word

Hermes, God of the Word Hermes, God of the Word Hermes, God of the Word By Maeve Maddox In Greek myth Hermes [hà »rmÄ“z], son of Zeus [zÃ… «s] and Maia [mÄ Ã‰â„¢, mÄ «Ã‰â„¢], was not just the patron god of thieves, merchants, and boundaries. He was also a god of science, art, speech, eloquence, and writing. Hermesson of Zeus and Maia, which is, of mind and sense. For the word is engendered from mind and sense. On account of this they also make him winged, as if to be swift. For nothing is swifter than a word. And [that is why] Homer [says] winged words. Suidas [syÃ… «Ã„ ­dÉ™s], Greek lexicographer. Hermes and the goddess Aphrodite [ÄÆ'frÉ™dÄ «tÄ“] had a son whose name is a combination of theirs: Hermaphroditos [hÉ™r-mÄÆ'frÉ™-dÄ «tÉ™s]. According to Ovid in his Metamorphoses, this son of Hermes was attacked and raped by an unconventional naiad (female nature spirit) named Salmacis. The attackers prayer that they not be parted resulted in the permanent fusion of their two bodies. Most of the stories in Metamorphoses[mÄ•tÉ™-mà ´rfÃ… -sÄ“z] are retellings of traditional tales, but Ovid probably made up the story about Salmacis [sÄÆ'l-mÄ sÄ ­s]. Another name for Hermes, or a perhaps a god derived from him, is Hermes Trismegistus[trÄ ­smÉ™-jÄ ­stÉ™s, trÄ ­z-] Hermes Thrice-blessed. This concept of Hermes was a combination of the Greek god and Thoth [thÃ… th, tÃ… t], the Egyptian god of wisdom. Various magical and alchemical writings came to be associated with Hermes Trismegistus who, it was believed, invented a magic seal to keep air out of vessels containing magical compounds. We owe several English words to Hermes: herm [hà »rm] a four-sided pillar used to mark boundaries. Sometimes it was surmounted by the head of the god. hermetic [hÉ™r-mÄ•tÄ ­k] an adjective meaning airtight or impervious to outside influences. The adverb is hermetically. The word is used both literally and figuratively: The scientist closed the flask with a hermetic seal. The survivalist compound was a a hermetic community, insulated from the world at large. hermeneutic [hà »rmÉ™-nÃ… «tÄ ­k] from Greek words meaning interpreter and to interpret. A hermeneutic approach to literature would seek meaning according to methodological principles of interpretation and explanation. hermeneutics [hà »rmÉ™-nÃ… «tÄ ­ks] from the same source as hermeneutic, deriving ultimately from Hermes in his capacity of patron of speech, writing, and eloquence. Hermeneutics is the methodological study of the Bible according to certain established principles of interpretation. Hermione [hÉ™rmÄ «Ã‰â„¢nÄ“] the feminine form of the name Hermes. hermaphrodite [hÉ™r-mÄÆ'frÉ™-dÄ «t] one sense of the word is an abnormal human being who combines male and female reproductive organs in the same body. In science, hermaphrodites are plants or animals for which it is normal for both male and female reproductive parts to exist on the same individual. By extension, hermaphrodite may be applied to inanimate objects that combines disparate parts, for example, a hermaphrodite brig. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Direct and Indirect Objects50 Idioms About Arms, Hands, and FingersBail Out vs. Bale Out

THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT OF BUSINESS - Essay Example A Brief History of Monopoly Law in the United States Monopolies came into being in the United States during the colonial administration. The public sector wanted to make some new world and old immigrants changes. Most companies were provided with exclusive contracts by the colonial administrations. Even after the colonial handovers, the American nation functioned effectively to ensure that the contracts and the land were held. Since then, the federal Government usually implements the antitrust laws. The laws seek to protect consumers from companies that tend to become monopolies and abuse the market. These laws include the Sherman Antitrust Act, which prevents the formation of a monopoly. If a company decides to operate in a monopolistic manner, the Act seeks to remove it from the market. In case there are any antitrust laws, the government takes charge through the office of the U.S or through the respective Attorney in the States. In this case, the United States Government and the 1 9 States filed a suit against Microsoft for operating as a monopoly. The Sherman Act forms the basis of modern-day Anti-trust legislations whose mandate is to protect consumers from wayward corporate practices that aim to exploit them. In essence, the Act tries to promote integrity in the market and for companies to operate in a competitive environment. Monopolies together with their subsidiaries or acquired companies can lead to great developments though the only downside is their control on the market. Unless monopolies prove a threat to national security, they can be embraced for the provision of certain products and services (Yao and Loo 34). Monopolization has a downside, since it is the sole supplier of certain goods and can decide to produce substandard and low quality goods (Boldrin and David 36). Monopolies create barriers to entry in the market due to large economies of scale among other factors (Yao and Loo 34). This reduces the marginal costs in producing additional unit s since the price is increased. Therefore, it is better to remove monopolies and promote competition, which will ensure good quality goods at affordable prices. This eliminates price fixing and the exploitation of end users (Boldrin and David 33). Firms may collude to operate as one in distribution of products. This is possible where the companies are involved in a similar business operate producing related products. Collusions lead to the formation of oligopolies, which reduces competition in the market. The firms can be involved in the price fixing that disadvantages the buyer. If the large firms collude, they gain the market and result in imperfect competition between the large and small firms. The firms obtain market power and thus determine prices to the disadvantage of the smaller firms. An example of oligopoly is the internet where few firm control the internet. These are shaw, Telus, Bel and Rogers. Government monopolies are usually involving in distribution of products, whi ch if left to the private sector would undergo exploitation. An example is the armed forces and the military (Lynn 22). In my opinion, Google is a monopoly company facing many criticisms most of the prompted by Microsoft. The main question has been whether Google is abusing its monopolistic position. Studies reveal that the company has been encrypting traffic for many years, and the recent changes were prompted by the USA over Kerfuffle as they attempt to force people to

Native American, West African, European societies Essay

Native American, West African, European societies - Essay Example At the same time, they were charged with the responsibility of protecting the family from external aggression. Further, it is noted that major decision makings in the family among the European societies were vested upon men. In fact, men played a major role in solving any disputes arising in the family. Likewise, men in West African society were also charged with the responsibility of fending for the family as they engaged in different economic activities such as hunting, and fishing. Just as with the European societies, men of West African society were perceived as family heads and provided protection from enemies, participated in decision makings, as well as ensuring that there is discipline in the family (Brown 27). On a similar note, the Native men also shared certain roles with their European and West African men. This was due to the fact that they also participated in fending food for the family through hunting, and in most cases worked outside their homes (Calloway 16). Simila rly, they acted as family heads in which they were charged with the responsibilities of making crucial decisions in the family, as well as playing defensive roles against their adversaries. Despite there being a number of similarities, the three societies also differed in terms of gender roles in that, in the European, and West African societies, men were considered very important and dominated their women as preserve of the society’s social order. In this regard, men in these two societies wielded power almost equal to that of a monarch. For instance, the ownership of land in European societies was left at the hands of men, while women only did so when their husbands are not around. This was not so among the Native Americans were women were given rights almost equal to those of their male counterparts (Richter 65). Women in the three societies also shared certain roles. For instance, in European societies, women were charged with the responsibility of gathering of greens, be rries and firewood. They also participated in planting, weeding and harvesting of food from the fields (Albers and Medicine 65). They also participated in the processing of beans and corn. In addition, women in European societies acted as caregivers, did the work of cooking for the family, slaughtering animals. Likewise, the West African women also were also charged with the responsibility of gathering food and firewood for the family. In this regard, they moved widely across the field gathering food for the family. Like European women, they also acted as caregivers in the family, cooked food. Research has also shown that Native women also did a lot of gathering food and firewood, the same way women of West Africa did. In addition, they were responsible for taking care of children and cooking for the family according to VanSledright (22). Nevertheless, the differences in the roles of women among the three societies emanates from the fact that women of Native America had more equal r ights as those of men, which is not the case among the European and West African societies. For instance, unlike in European and West African societies where women acted as caregivers, the Native women acted as givers of life while their husband were took care of the life. In addition, women also took part in major decision makings among the Native

Anchoring and Adjustment Essay Example for Free

Anchoring and Adjustment Essay Negotiator biases are an important part of knowing how to present a negotiation in the most positive light. Negotiators must also be flexible in offering that which the party or parties find acceptable. A bias to be discussed will be that of anchoring that part of a negotiation the negotiate is willing to accept. A second bias is that of framing the outcome for the party as enticing as possible. Availability of information will be the final bias discussed. In discussing these biases the goal is to become a negotiator capable of avoiding these through heightened awareness. Anchoring and Adjustment What is it about the product or presentation you are offering that is attractive to the other party that will create a positive outcome. The bias of anchoring and adjustment is applying appropriate value to the service, product, or presentation being offered. An example would be purchasing a product on e-bay. One of the attractions of bidding on e-bay, is the automatic bidding feature. The buyer places a particular value upon the product. The seller may or may not have a set price. For the purpose of this example, the seller has not set a particular price. The product is a prized, hard to find Christmas item that your three year old child must have. While you are willing to make a sacrifice, what is the sacrifice worth to you? The buyer puts into play a price that is reasonable to him/her. While also putting in the maximum amount he/she is willing to pay for the product. The minimum bid is placed at 500 dollars. A friend of yours knew you were seeking this particular item for your child and offers to sell the item for 750 dollars. An anchor has been set, a specific value on the item your child desires. One advantage is that you can see the condition of the item, where the e-bay seller has offered a picture. Framing Outcomes Framing outcomes presents a bit more complex bias in negotiation situation. Risk is introduced as a threat to the negotiation process. This bias is one in which the negotiator must be able to know the different types of risk and guess at the risk another party is willing to accept. In the example set above, all three risks could be put into action or play. The buyer could decide to be risk-neutral and attempt to bring the friends price to the acceptable offer of the maximum bid offered on e-bay. The second option is risk-averse which would be to accept the neighbors offer without negotiation, in other words the offer is accepted without challenge. The third option, risk-seeker would involve the person willing to accept the loss if the he/she is outbid on e-bay and thus the childs disappointment. Missing a cue such as the willingness to take risk could be vital in the outcome of the process. The neighbor in our scenario definitely has the advantage of the endowment effect. As owner of the desired item he/she is most likely placing a higher value on the prized Christmas toy that may be acceptable. The effect of ownership serves as a bias in that the item has come to have more value, in the mind of the seller. A situation which may leave the seller holding a useless toy, once the holiday season has passed. Availability of Information This would seem to be one of the most vital parts in negotiation. The negotiator should have most if not all the information that is possibly available. However, it seems likely, that this step though important could also be easily missed. The article pointed out that information can easily be misconstrued due to the attachment a person may or may not have to the process. Continuing in the example of the desired toy; How vital has it become in the buyers mind to attain the toy for the child? Have there been news reports showing long lines and large shortages of the availability of the toy? Have advertisements for the desired item been more frequent, thus making the item much more valuable to the child? How willing is the parent to avoid tears and disappointment on Christmas morning? In the process of negotiation the importance of information, must in some way, be mined by the negotiator to create the desired outcome. Knowledge is always a valuable thing, whether this is revealed to the relevant parties is not important. The negotiator should know about the parties being worked with, as well as the desired outcome and that which makes the outcome desirable. Conclusion Awareness of the biases in negotiation are important to the would be person who chooses to arbitrate or mediate in decision-making. The three problems outlined above are all important and complex. The arbitrator must have the skill of being able to know the value of that outcome which is most desirable and palatable. The negotiator should have an excellent working knowledge of human behavior and those actions that may come into play during a negotiation. The negotiator must be willing to study and learn, not only the process of negotiation, but what makes the desired outcome, just that? An arbitrator or mediator works toward an outcome agreeable to all parties, creating a win-win situation, known or unknown to the involved parties. Awareness of negotiator biases provides access to those traps a negotiator may become entangled. Through higher knowledge and awareness the would be negotiator should be able to avoid those biases before becoming a problem.

American Homefront During World War II Essay -- American History

The American home front during World War II is recalled warmly in popular memory and cultural myth as a time of unprecedented national unity, years in which Americans stuck together in common cause. World War II brought many new ideas and changes to American life. Even though World War II brought no physical destruction to the United States mainland, it did affect American society. Every aspect of American life was altered by U.S. involvement in the war including demographics, the labor force, economics and cultural trends. During the Great Depression, the American birth rate had fallen to an all-time low due to delayed marriages and parenthood. In the 1940's, there was a population growth of 19 million, which doubled the rise of the 1930's. However, in 1957, America experienced a "baby boom", and by 1957 the population increased by 29 million. "The rising birthrate was the dominant factor affecting population growth" (text, 847). Along with the escalated birth rate was an upsurge of divorces due to problems with separation and infidelity. "In 1945, more than half a million marriages were dissolved" (Bailey, 147). The death rate was on the decline and life expectancy rose during this period. New medical developments were made with the federal funding of medical research in which penicillin and streptomycin were developed. These advancements in medicine cured many bacterial infections and severe illnesses. Later, in 1952, Jonas Salk introduced a polio vaccine. There was a vast migratory pattern of many Americans during this time period. During the 1940's, millions of African-Americans moved from the South to the North in search of industrial opportunities. As a result of this migration, a third of all black Amer... ...ing legend of the Good War" (Adams, 2). While the war changed the lives of every American, the most notable changes were that in demographics, the labor force, economic prosperity and cultural trends. Adams, Michael C.C. "The Best War Ever America and World War II" Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD 1994 Bailey, Ronald H. The Home Front, U.S.A. Time-Life Publishing, Chicago, IL. 1978 Bard, Mitchell G. The Complete Idiot's Guide to world War II, Macmillan Publishing, New York, New York, 1999 Duis, Perry 0 The War in American Culture, The University of Chicago Press, 1994 Schultz, Stanley K. American History 102 Civil War to the Present Copyright 1999 Board of regents of the University of Wisconsin http://us.history.wisc.edu/hist102/lectures/lecture21.html

Jit in Service Sector

This issue s covered by adopting an indirect approach. All the benefits which are obtained using KIT are listed and then their corresponding implementation In service sector Is discussed. It is observed that all the utilities of KIT like Reducing cost, Improving Quality, Improving Performance, Improving Delivery, Adding Flexibility and Increasing Innovativeness are implemented in service industry. This helps us to understand that basic philosophy remains the same, only Implementation methodology Is changed.IT is a philosophy of continuous improvement in which non-value-adding activities re identified and removed for the purposes of: Reducing cost Improving Quality Improving Performance Improving Delivery Adding Flexibility Increasing Innovativeness IT is not about automation. KIT eliminates waste by providing the environment to perfect and simplify the processes. KIT is a collection of techniques used to improve operations. It can also be a new production system that is used to produ ce goods or services.All the above utilities of Just in Time concept indicates that this concept is not sector specific concept. It can also be employed in service sector. Service Sector In order to define services, it is not enough to say simply that they are intangible acts as opposed to tangible goods. Most modern products are a combination of both. For example, when purchasing a washing machine the customer also receives services such as installation, maintenance and repair. When getting a haircut, the customer will likely also benefit from a number of hair care products and might even purchase some for home use.Therefore services can be characterized with the following important features: Intangibility: services cannot generally be seen, tasted, felt, heard or smelled before they are bought. ? Inseparability: services are produced and consumed at the same time. Variability: the quality of the same service may vary depending on who provides it as well as when and how it is provi ded. Permissibility: services cannot be stored for later sales or use; lack of demand cannot be evened out by producing to an inventory.Several of the features enumerated above do not apply to modern information technology-based services. There, personal contact does not have any importance (e. G. , on-line learning in its purest form, on-line banking, etc. ) and variability is greatly reduced t I not eliminated completely. Due to this heterogeneity in services it is difficult to classify them in a useful manner. Implementation of KIT in Service Sector The key principles of KIT in any system are: no wastage, total visibility, and flexibility in the use of human and material resources.In any environment these principles translate into three simple rules: don't start any work unless the demand signal indicates a need for more material; if the demand signal indicates a need, work to fill that need; and, never exceed the queue-size limit . KIT is now fully integrated into service sector , although the use of the term KIT is rarely used. All the objectives aimed by employing KIT is achieved in service sector as seen below. Reducing Cost In Service sector â€Å"return on investment† (ROI) has traditionally translated to â€Å"cut costs. Certainly, organizations today are under tremendous pressure from management and from customers to deliver a higher level of service at lower cost, and to do so using existing resources. Any expenditure they do make to help them achieve this goal is expected to deliver a measurable, hard-dollar ROI, and deliver it quickly. Similar to manufacturing sector, cost can be reduced by adopting administration. Service sector can delivers standardization by applying the principles to the way people, business processes, and technology are organized.All three have become so interlinked that change to one must be addressed in all three. Uses of Information technology in various service sector industries have led to standardization. Standa rdization can be adopted by using the industry standards, reusable components, and consistent implementation. Industry Standard Architecture Industry standards provide a consistent enterprise-wide approach for deploying IT at the lowest cost. Reducing the diversity of your IT environment drives down the costs of implementing change.Industry standards enable different components in a heterogeneous environment to work together consistently. Today's standards will also help facilitate the integration of tomorrow's standards and solutions. Standards drive efficiencies and economies of scale, increase flexibility and provide greater choice. They lower the cost of computing compared to proprietary offerings and provide the foundation for innovations that enhance functionality and the user experience.Standards also facilitate common training, best practices and the reuse f knowledge. Reusable component Reusable components break down silos of IT into modular assets. This building blocks app roach applies to system elements, application and infrastructure services and people. The rapid adoption of web services is the result of standard, industry- recognized IT components that address the need to reduce cost, implement new services quickly and efficiently, and scale rapidly.Consistent Implementation Consistent implementation provides a standardized approach to the way work is organized, establishing a common framework for business and IT A consistent approach to implementation increases productivity and enables the rapid redeployment tot resources to meet changing business demand and reduces the time required to implement change, improves operational efficiency, and increases flexibility when deploying human resources or changing business processes.Example McDonald's Corporation will migrate more than 4,000 stores to run on CO'S Open Server Release 5 platform over the next two years. McDonald's implementation of Open Server will assist in relaying data from the stores' p oint-of-sale machines to McDonald's corporate headquarters, as well as provide access to corporate applications. Open Server also helps McDonald's reduce costs by allowing the use of less expensive hardware and enabling the networking and speed provided by newer hardware. Improving Quality According to Curran (1999), quality can be defined as fitness for use.The term can also be understood as features of the product which meet customer needs and thereby provide customer satisfaction and as freedom from deficiencies – errors that require rework or result in field failures, customer dissatisfaction and claims etc. In order to improve quality in the service sector it is important to realize that every recess generates information that can be used for its improvement. No organization should neglect the opportunity to take a close look at accumulated data as part of the operations.With this data it is possible to discover hidden patterns in process deficiencies, form different hyp othesis as to what might be the reasons for deficiencies, etc. In short, use the scientific method to increase profitability and competitiveness of the organization as a whole by improving processes and customer satisfaction. Statistical tools for improvement of service quality The basic statistical toolbox includes a set of seven tools. Among them are check sheets, the Parent chart, the cause-and-effect diagram, histograms, stratification, scatter plots and graphs (including the control chart).They help people see how often things happen, when and where they happen and in what different forms they may present themselves to the observer. These tools are widely used in the service industry. Example The President of a relatively small mortgage-lending bank facing a serious competition of similar institutions had decided that in order to survive in the market ,excellent service should be the banks trademark. They selected team conducted a preliminary statistical study of transaction da ta. Team members found out that the average time to complete a loan was 24 days.A market analysis showed that a shorter time period to obtain a home loan would give the bank a significant advantage over the competitors. The banks President nominated a team to work on reducing the waiting time for the loans approval. After flowcharting the process on the basis of available transaction data and observing the processing of new loans for 3 months, the team found out that enormous time savings could be achieved. A Parent chart indicated that an overwhelming part of the elapsed time was due to the documents traveling between various offices since they had to be read and approved by so many different people.Further analysis showed that the steps in the process could be combined, and get done by one person. This could greatly reduce boot TN waiting time and the potential for errors. As a consequence, a set of standard operating procedures was prepared for the new process. After the system c hanges were implemented, a statistical study showed that the average time to obtain a home non was reduced to 4 days, providing this bank with a significant advantage over its competitors. Improving performance Performance in a service sector can be improved by using various approaches.Any or all of the following approaches will improve organizational performance depending on if they are implemented comprehensively and remain focused on organizational results. Broad Overview of Various Approaches The following descriptions are general and brief. Balanced Scorecard: Focuses on four indicators, including customer perspective, internal-business processes, learning and growth and financial, to monitor progress award organization's strategic goals Benchmarking: Using standard measurements in a service or industry for comparison to other organizations in order to gain perspective on organizational performance.For example, there are emerging standard benchmarks for universities, hospitals, etc. Business Process Reengineering: Aims to increase performance by radically re-designing the organization's structures and processes, including by starting over from the ground up. Cultural Change: Cultural change is a form of organizational transformation, that is, radical and fundamental form of change. Cultural change involves changing the basic values, norms, beliefs, etc. , among members of the organization.Knowledge Management: Focuses on collection and management of critical knowledge in an organization to increase its capacity for achieving results. Its effectiveness toward reaching overall results for the organization depends on how well the enhanced, critical knowledge is applied in the organization. Learning Organization: Focuses on enhancing organizations systems (including people) to increase an organization's capacity for performance. Management by Objectives (MOB): Aims to align goals and fortunate objectives throughout the organization Program Evaluation: Program evaluation is used for a wide variety of applications, e. . , to increase efficiencies of program processes and thereby cut costs, to assess if program goals were reached or not, to quality programs for accreditation, etc. Strategic Planning: Organization-wide process to identify strategic direction, including vision, mission, values and overall goals. Direction is pursued by implementing associated action plans, including multi- level goals, objectives, time lines and responsibilities. Strategic planning is, of course, form of planning. Improving Delivery The delivery in service sector is improved by the introduction of Internet and information technology.It has bridged the gap between customer and service provider. Now it is possible to take orders on computer, maintain a database of clients on network and use it as and when required. Customer segments vary by need, size and service levels so it is difficult for one delivery channel to serve all segments efficiently. Providers ca n oaten increase snare tot wallet Witt under- penetrated customer segments by creating niche-focused delivery channels. A low venue segment, for example, can be assigned to a telephone channel at a lower cost while providing services designed to increase customer satisfaction.The niche- focused channel can be developed so it replicates the sales and service functions that traditional face-to-face delivers to more profitable segments. Contact center representatives can identify and prioritize customer needs and then deliver solutions that have high value to the customer. The path to such solutions begins with an evaluation of current channel performance to diagnose opportunities. Compare current and desired future state metrics of each channel. Then restructure key components of the delivery system for each line of business and each customer cluster.Look for solutions that guide customers into more efficient channels while actually improving service to the customer. Adding flexibilit y The only way companies can continue to empower employees and reduce the bureaucracy within their operation is to use flexible people–people who can do more than one task. Business needs workers who are ascertained in other skills and who also participate in such traditional managerial concerns as Job planning, organizing, and controlling. Flexible people are also having an impact on the service industry. One example, reported by Fortune (Ulster 1989), is Lecher, Inc. A store retail chain owned by Dayton Hudson. Experimenting with flexibility as a competitive tool, Lecher began by offering employees in its Sarasota, Florida facility raises based on the number of Jobs each learned to perform. Cashiers were encouraged to sell records and tapes. Sporting goods salespeople were taught to operate forklifts. What are the benefits to Lecher? Flexibility in the work force has helped the company adjust quickly to shifts in staffing needs because workers can be moved to where hey are needed. Pay incentives plus the chance for more varied and interesting work days are powerful recruiting incentives.Perhaps that is one reason Lechery's Sarasota facility has a more stable work force–60 percent full time, rather than the 30 percent that exists in the rest of the chain. Increasing Innovativeness Innovation is clearly critical to the dynamism of the service sector, in particular as information and communication technologies are applied to re-engineer business processes, to create and extend service offerings, and to realize entirely new business models Type tot Innovation, by sector [pick] Due to the heterogeneous nature of services, innovation can take very different shapes in different areas.As shown in figure, in service sector innovation is primarily happening in terms of organizational changes. Companies are becoming horizontally integrated and Job enlargement is the key driver for the organizational change. Today, it typically leads to a stronger focus on â€Å"core business†, enhancing firms' capacity to excel in a narrower band of products. The increased tendency towards outsourcing is one element of this trend. Another one is the establishment of more mutinous and mutually beneficial relationships between firms.Organizational change serves in part to improve co-operation both within and between organizations; it is often essential for reaping the gains of innovation as well as for promoting successful innovation. Hence it is observed that in service sector KIT is implemented in a different way, yet it lead to the same result. KIT is now fully integrated into service sector, although the use of the term KIT is rarely used. Examples of KIT implementation in service sector McDonald's, Domino's and federal Express, who compete on speed and still provide heir products and services at low cost and increasing variety. ? Lens provider, cleaner and car-repair services can turn around customer orders in an hour. Supermarkets repleni sh their shelves according to what the customers withdraw. Retail stores can provide customers with more choice faster than ever before. Stores can now track customer buying habits in real-time and change their orders daily. Conclusion It is seen that elements of KIT can be applied to almost any operation, including service operations. The philosophy remains the same, only the methodology and ways of implementation changes.

How the Climate Changes the Environment Essay

The American Heritage Dictionary defines the environment as â€Å"The combination of external physical conditions that affect and influence the growth, development, and survival of organisms† (â€Å"Environment† 2004). The world climate affects every living organism. The climate is part of the environment. Since climatic change will affect other physical conditions, changes in the climate will affect the rest of the environment. Climate is defined by the Random House on line dictionary as â€Å"The composite or generally prevailing weather conditions of a region, as temperature, air pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness, and winds, throughout the year, averaged over a series of years. † (â€Å"Climate† 2007). In the scientific community, climate is defined as the mean weather pattern over a large time frame, such as 30 years (Helmuth, Mieszkowska, Moore, Hawkins 2006). The climate affects what organisms can survive and flourish in a given locale. For example, birds migrate south for the winter so that their environment includes a warmer climate. They migrate back during the summer so that they can enjoy a more moderate climate during those months. If this natural climate cycle changes, there may be no impetus for migration. The climate that we observe is driven by solar energy. The green house effect is a natural occurring process. Heat from the Sun is trapped by greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere. Some of this heat is re-radiated down to the surface, warming the Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, the mean temperature on the surface would be about zero degrees F. Instead, with the greenhouse effect, it is 57 degrees F (NOAA 2001). Obviously, our environment would be vastly different if the mean temperature was zero degrees F. HOW THE CLIMATE CHANGES THE ENVIRONMENT Page 2 of 5 The climate is changing. Global surface temperatures have increased by about . 6 degrees centigrade since the late 1800’s; with half the increase occurring in the last 25 years (NOAA 2001). With this increase comes a decrease of about . 3% of the artic sea ice (NOAA 2001). This is consistent with the temperature increase that has been observed. Over the next 100 years, the estimate for the mean global temperature increase varies from 2. 3 to 10. 1 degrees F. At the extreme, this would equate to a mean temperature of 67 degrees F, or an increase of 17% (Karl 2001). Computer models show that the Earth is becoming wetter and warmer. Over the next 100 years, rainfall will increase in the tropics and mid latitudes. If rainfall increases enough, then the salinity of the oceans will be reduced (Burroughs 1999). This could affect the Great Ocean Conveyor, the circulation process that brings warm water and energy from the tropical regions into the Northern Atlantic. Modeling shows that the Conveyor is very sensitive to rain water runoff from the continents. Small variations in the input of fresh water into the system may change the currents, and thus significantly alter the climate in the Americas and Europe (Burroughs 1999). The amount of impact that humans have on the climate has also been debated. For the first time, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a United Nations network, stated that global warming was â€Å"unequivocal† and caused largely by the burning of coal (Associated Press 2007). Natural agents alone cannot explain the climatic warming trend. Computer modeling has shown that a significant amount of the warming is human caused (Karl 2001). Since the temperatures are forecast to continue to increase, the amount of climatic change will also increase. HOW THE CLIMATE CHANGES THE ENVIRONMENT Page 3 of 5 The changing climate will affect the environment. Human habitation in coastal zones will be greatly affected. The forecasted temperature increase of 10 degrees F mean temperature would equate to a sea level rise, at the extreme, of about 35 inches by the year 2100 due to melting of the polar ice and runoff from the melt of glaciers (Karl 2001). A more extreme calculation puts 100 million people a year being flooded by rising sea levels by 2080 (Borenstein 2007). If the rise in temperature reaches 14 degrees F, the West Antartic ice sheet could collapse, with the resulting rise in sea level of 47 inches per century from that alone. The resulting flood would encompass a large part of Florida, including Miami, and the Atlantic seaboard. Internationally, large population centers such as Ho Chi Min City would be flooded (Burroughs 1999). Indeed, some research has shown that some fragile habitats could be even more drastically and rapidly affected. It has been shown that the environmental stresses caused to intertidal organisms by climate changes affects them faster then terrestrial organisms (Helmuth, et. al. 2006). In fact, the change in climate can lead to extermination of some intertidal organisms. If these are prey, then the environment will change for the predators, resulting in reduced populations or migration (Helmuth, et. al. 2006). The change in climate will also affect food production. In developed countries, the effect will be to a much lesser degree, at least for the foreseeable future. More food will be produced as the temperatures continue to rise. Soybean and rice yields are expected to rise in Latin America. Northern latitudes will see a longer growing season, resulting in higher output (Borenstein 2007). By 2050, the effects of the climate change on food production will be negligible (Burroughs 1999). HOW THE CLIMATE CHANGES THE ENVIRONMENT Page 4 of 5 In developing countries the effects will be much more pronounced. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has stated that the severest impact of global warming food shortages would be in the sub-Saharan countries of Africa (Pullella 2005). Lower latitudes will have reduced food production. The rapid crop development along with rising heat and the need for more water will result in lower yields (Burroughs 1999). By the year 2080, 600 million people may go hungry because of the climate change (Borenstein 2007). Those populations that can would attempt to migrate to more fertile land. This will place an economic and political strain on the nations that are losing population and those who would accept these environmental refugees. Large scale movements of populations would place a burden on the food supplies on neighboring countries, possibly affecting the food production. A true risk of local overpopulation would exist, changing the environment for all who reside there. Water shortages are also a threat in the developing nations. In less than 20 years, hundreds of millions of Africans and tens of millions of Latin Americans will be short of water. By 2080, the water shortages may effect up to 3. 2 billion people (Borenstein 2007). The sea level rise will also affect the quality of water. Saline intrusion, contamination of water supplies, and the need for an increased water supply for agriculture to offset the temperature change all will have a negative impact (Burroughs 1999). The climate change will also affect the health and welfare of both human and other organism’s populations. With the change in the environment there will come a change in distribution of insect carried diseases (Burroughs 1999). There has already been a resurgence of malaria world-wide over the past 20 years. By 2100, due to the change of climate, malaria is expected to affect 50-80 million more people a year. The distribution of malaria will extend into HOW THE CLIMATE CHANGES THE ENVIRONMENT Page 5 of 5 Eurasia, Northeastern Canada, all of Australia, and even into the southern coast of Alaska and the coastal regions of the northwestern United States and Canada (Burroughs 1999). Higher temperatures not only increase the insects range and numbers, but also how often they bite and how infectious they are (Burroughs 1999). Other insect borne diseases will extend their range. Dengue, also carried by mosquitoes, will extend into non-endemic areas. Rodents will also extend their ranges and bring insects that carry diseases like the Plague and Hantavirus with them. The warmer temperatures will reduce the rodent’s mortality, further increasing the spread of disease (Burroughs 1999). Lyme disease will also have an increased range of occurrence as the ticks responsible are able to survive in a larger habitat (Burroughs 1999). Other diseases will also flourish. As the amount of water is reduced in developing countries, diseases such as cholera and diphtheria will become more prevalent. Increased exposure to ultraviolet light will cause an increase in the occurrence of skin cancer, ocular disease, and weakened immune systems (Burroughs 1999). The changing climate will indeed change the environment on a global scale. All aspects of the environment, from insect range to food production, sea level to water supply, will be affected in some way. These changes will be far more pronounced in developing nations then developed ones. The ability to adapt to these changes will also be affected by the economic status of the nations involved. References Associated Press. (2007, February 28). Scientists Urge Global Action On Clean Energy. New York Times, p. A8. Borenstein, S. (2007). Warming Report to Warn of Coming Drought. Retrieved March 11, 2007, from Yahoo! News. Website: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070311/ap_on_sc/climate_report

Air Pollution Essays - Air Pollution, Smog, Particulates, Pollution

Air Pollution Essays - Air Pollution, Smog, Particulates, Pollution Air Pollution Air pollution Introduction With the great concern surrounding the destruction of the earths atmosphere due to air pollution, the immediate and direct harm caused to the human body is often over shadowed. While many are aware that our careless use of hazardous chemicals and fossil fuels may leave the planet uninhabitable in the future, most over look the fact that they are also cause real damage to our bodies at this moment. Such pollutants cause damage to our respiratory system, leading to the fluctuation of the life span of an individual depending on a number of conditions. Amongst these conditions are the individuals specific geographic location, age, and life style. This paper is structured as a series of relevant questions and answers to report on the description of these pollutants there affects on our bodies. What are the pollutants? And how do they affect our bodies? In order to understand how air pollution affects our body, you must under stand exactly what this pollution is. The pollutants that harm our respiratory system are known as particulates. Particulates are the small solid particles that you can see through a ray of sunlight. They are products of incomplete combustion in engines (example: automobile engines), road dust, and wood smoke. Billions of tons of coal and oil are consumed around the world every year. When these fuels burn they produce smoke and other by-products into the atmosphere. Although wind and rain occasionally wash away the smoke given off by power plants and automobiles, much still remains. Particulate matter (soot, ash, and other solids), usually consist of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, various nitrogen oxides, ozone, and lead. These compounds undergo a series of chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight, the result is smog (a term used to describe a noxious mixture of fog and smoke) The smog in this photograph of Beijing, China is so dense that you can barely see the mountains The process by which these pollutants harm our bodies begins by simply taking a breath. Particulates are present every where, in some areas they are as dense as 100,000 per milliliter of air. The damage begins when the particulates are inhaled into the small air sacs of our lungs called alveoli. With densities such as 100,000 per milliliter a single alveolus may receive 1,500 particulates per day. These particulates cause the inflammation of the alveoli. The inflammation causes the body to produce agents in the blood that in crease clotting ability, which leads to the decreased functionality of the cardiovascular system, resulting in diseases and increased mortality. In the blood, carbon monoxide interferes with the supply of oxygen to all tissues and organs, including the brain and heart. Particulates accumulate on the mucous linings of the airways and lungs and impair their functioning. Continued exposure to particulates damages the lungs and increases an individual's chances of developing such conditions as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Inside the alveoli of the lungs, particulate air pollution irritates and inflames them. While you may see pollutants such as particulates, other harmful ones are not visible. Amongst the most dangerous to our health are Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur dioxide, and Ozone. If you have ever been in an enclosed parking garage or a tunnel and felt dizzy or light-headed then you have felt the effect of carbon monoxide(CO). This odorless, colorless, but poisonous gas is produced by the incomplete burning of fossil fuels, like gasoline or diesel fuel. Carbon Monoxide comes from cars, trucks, gas furnaces and stoves, and some industrial processes. CO is also a toxin in cigarettes. Carbon Monoxide combines with hemoglobin in the red blood cells, so body cells and tissues cannot get the oxygen they need. Carbon Monoxide attacks the immune system, especially affecting anyone with heart disease, anemia, and emphysema and other lung diseases. Even when at low concentrations CO affects mental function, vision, and alertness. Nitrogen Oxide is another pollutant that has been nicknamed a jet-age pollutant because it is only apparent in highly advanced countries. Sources of this are fuel plant, cars, and trucks. At lower concentrations nitrogen oxides are a light brown gas. In high concentrations they are major sources of haze and smog. They also combine with other compounds

A Comparative Analysis Of The Education System In The United Kingdom And Pakistan

A Comparative Analysis Of The Education System In The United Kingdom And Pakistan Academic Skills There are different education systems that exist in United Kingdom (UK) and Pakistan. These two countries exist in different continents namely Europe and Asia. The United Kingdom (UK) is comprised of four countries namely Wales, Ireland, England and Scotland; education system that exists in all countries that forms a larger united kingdom is not such similar. There are some minimal similarities is some aspects. Pakistan is divided into four provinces. There are differences and similarities of education systems that exist within Pakistan in their four provinces in the case of UK countries. International comparison of education system is a key factor when determining how far a country has advanced in terms of innovation, technology, infrastructure and other factors of developments. The purpose of this essay is to compare and contrast the education systems that exist in the UK and Pakistan in terms of structure, curriculum, religion assessments, and examinations among others. The education system that exists in Pakistan is three-tier; it includes elementary (grade1-8), secondary (grade 9-12) and higher education also known as tertiary education which follow after twelve years of schooling. Elementary education is divided into two levels. There is primary (grade 1-5) and elementary or middle (grade 6-8). This are delivered in primary and elementary school. Whereas education in UK is compulsory, education is not compulsory (statutory) requirement at all levels in Pakistan and this has led to an increase in illiteracy rate and low participation rate at all levels. In elementary schools, children between the ages of 5 years to nine years are enrolled. Education is not statutory in some UK countries like Scotland and England. In Scotland, the children entry age is five but it’s not statutory like in England; the differences that exist is that in Scotland is there is an existence of hard and fast cut-off dates in regard to what is normally considered as â€Å"rising fives†(Matheson 2000). The majority of children in rural schools in Pakistan join primary school when they have attained the age of six years or even more and unlike in UK where 5 years old are enrolled. Most countries in UK have their primary level split into two; there is key stage 1 (5-6 years) and key stage 2 (year 7-11).this is quite different with a three tier system being used in Pakistan. A primary education last for 7 years in Scotland and they do not have preparatory classes like in the case of England. Secondary education in Pakistan has duration of four years (grade 9-12). This is provided in government sponsored secondary and higher secondary schools. The majority of these schools have middle level classes. The institutions of learning that exists in all of their provinces are the same, the existence of colleges are meant to offer secondary classes. In UK, secondary schools normally targets age group of 12-16 and at times 12-17 or even 18 depending on the country, in which students joins A-levels. In Northern Ireland, major differences that exists is that their institutions exists in the basis of religious communities or sect; their schools are managed by three groups namely Catholics, community and protestants. In Pakistan, majority of their schools are government sponsored. Also there is minimal religious influence in their education sector; Islamic teachings are most commonly taught in various schools. The education system in Northern Ireland is characterized by religious segr egation, these does not exist in other UK countries (McAllister Dowds 2014). The parent’s attitude of selecting schools for their children of other religion is the rarest thing that happens in Northern Ireland just like in the case of Muslim parents in Pakistan. Their system allows religious schools which includes Muslims, Anglican, Jewish and Roman catholic schools. In Pakistan, the ministry of education has responsibility for curriculum for grades 1-12; curriculum bureau or curriculum Research and Development Center (CRDC) operates in all their provinces and their role is to provide academic assistance to ministry of education based in Islamabad. The process of formulation normally takes a lot of time; it thus requires experts’ opinions and inclusiveness, and representation from all provinces. The role of National Curriculum Review Committee is finalizing curriculum draft that would be followed nationally. The curriculum for higher education is formulated by concerned departments in colleges or universities (Shah 2014). The process of formulating a curriculum in UK varies in all their four countries. In Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, the curriculum they have is a statutory subject based. In Scotland, their curriculum from 5 to 14 is mainly based on five broad curriculum areas, 14 to 16 is based on eight study modes. The major diff erence that exists in primary and secondary schools in Scotland is that there is a domination of subjects in their curriculum. Also their curriculum is characterized by shorter academic courses and vocational modules. The rest of other UK countries have longer academic courses and vocational programs that usually lead to group awards. Pakistan curriculum formulation is more centralized and it is similar to other UK countries but not in the case of Scotland where they have flexible and teacher centered curriculum. In Pakistan, the district governments are in charge of assessment and examinations as from grades 1 to 12. A national curriculum test does not exist for primary, secondary and elementary schools in three provinces which includes AJK, FANA and FATA and unlike in the case of UK. In Punjab province, provincial and district governments have introduced national curriculum test both in primary (grade 5) and elementary (grade 8), this tests are conducted by district and provincial government. The continuous assessment test in Punjab determines ones progression in their academic system; this is per their examination reforms. Initially there was six assessments per year which was revised later to four assessments. There are compulsory examinations at the end of each grade all over their three provinces and it is conducted by different bodies which includes Boards of intermediate secondary schools (BISE) for secondary and higher secondary level; The Inter-Board Committee of chairman ensures th at there is uniformity and quality assurance across BISEs. In UK, their national curriculum are statutory most notably in England; this does not exist is Scotland. These tests are conducted in England at the end of each stage like KS1, KS2, KS3 and KS4. Primary SAT examination was abandoned in Wales on grounds that it wasn’t helpful when it comes to raising standards (Murphy 2014). Unlike in Pakistan; there is no much difference when it comes to awarding of certificates across the UK. The GCSE are awarded to students upon completing their 16 years of schooling while in Scotland, it is awarded after 17 or 18 years of schooling (McNally 2013). In conclusion, this study shows differences and similarities that exist in the Pakistani education system and UK education system. There are disparities in education system within the UK countries just like in the case of four provinces within Pakistan. What creates these divisions in education system of this two countries are the resources that are there in public schools; the Pakistani educational institutions experience lack of qualified and trained personnel despite the similarities that exists in terms of infrastructure between these two countries (Lall 2012).

Phosphorus, Nitrogen & Microbiological based water pollution from Essay

Phosphorus, Nitrogen & Microbiological based water pollution from municipal sources - Essay Example Water pollution usually occurs when a water body gets contaminated by different materials which are usually not present in it and which are harmful in nature. So in such a situation the water body is no longer useful for its intended use and hence is termed as polluted. If we consider the case of pollutants, there are two variants of water pollution. They are called as point source and non point source. Point sources of pollution happen when harmful substances are emitted directly in the water body and non point sources are those which deliver pollutants indirectly usually through environmental effects. It is generally regarded that water pollution which arises from non point sources are usually difficult to deal and ironically these are the ones which account for a majority of the contaminants in water bodies like streams and lakes. In order to understand the whole scenario clearly lets give a brief introduction to causes of pollution. We all know that there are many elements which cause pollution. Some of the important ones are sewage and fertilizers. These are dangerous because they contain nutrients like nitrates and phosphates. The main problem is that these nutrients stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and excessive growth of these organisms clogs the waterways. They also block light to the deeper section of the water body and this affects fish and other living organisms.   Pollution is also caused when silt and other suspended solids, such as soil, construction and logging sites, urban areas, and eroded river banks when it rains. Normally, lakes, rivers, and other water bodies undergo Eutrophication, an aging process that slowly fills in the water body with sediment and organic matter.   When these sediments enter various bodies of water, fish respiration becomes impaired, plant productivity and water depth become

Incentives can lead to improved performance Essay

Incentives can lead to improved performance - Essay Example Desirable incentives can improve employee motivation and therefore performance if constraints are applied reasonably. This paper explores the relationship that exists between incentives and employee motivation. Naturally, human beings act purposefully. The hope for a reward therefore is a powerful incentive that can motivate people to do certain things. In the organizational setup, incentives can be financial or non-financial, and positive or negative. Positive incentives are those that offer positive assurance that certain needs or wants will be fulfilled. On the other hand, negative incentives re those that are purposely applied to correct the defaults or mistakes of workers. Some common forms of incentives include job security, job satisfaction and job promotion. There are several reasons behind the promise of incentives in an organization. Some of the main reasons include to increase productivity, encourage enthusiasm, encourage job satisfaction, increase commitment, and to shape people’s behavior and attitudes toward work (Harpaz, 1990). Individuals will always do whatever they wish to do or otherwise do what they are motivated to do. Many theorists have defined motivation in various ways. Kreitner defines the term as the psychological process that defines the orientation and purpose of behavior. Others define it as the internal drive to satisfy a need that is not satisfied (Murphy, 2009). From the above definitions, motivation may be assumed to be the inner force that drives people to realize personal and organizational goals. Some of the theorists that have contributed to the understanding of motivation include Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs), Skinner (reinforcement theory), Herzberg (two- factor theory), Adams (equity theory) and Vroom (expectancy theory) (Terpstra, 1979). According to Maslow, there are five levels of needs. The lower level needs have

Law and Policy Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Law and Policy - Case Study Example Information security in an organization involves ensuring that only people with rights to read, change, broadcast and use it have access to it. Different organizations have their own policies which guide the implementation of any new system. Policies in an organization need employees to comply with them. Policies describe the rules and procedures for organization employ to comply with (Kiefer, Wu, Wilson & Sabett 2004). The need for information security is to primarily protect information from any unauthorized party. Several threats can pose to make information insecure. There is a need to ensure information is secure while ensuring that the policies and legal guidelines of the organization and the surrounding environment are adhered with (Kiefer, Wu, Wilson & Sabett 2004). Government and organizational policies dictate the implementation of an information security system. The government policies are determined and issued to organizations depending on the type or kind of governing en vironment within the organization’s operation. The government can be federal, state, local or tribal. The on the type of the business industry, the government policies act as a framework for organizations’ administration or management to comply with in order to secure information and information systems (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). The need for government policies is to control and regulate the relevant market in order to avoid conflicts which might arise among the industry players. The government policies give a procedure and guidelines for organizational governments to follow when implementing information security systems. Organization policies are devised by the organization as a guideline when implementing a new system. The policies are devised to ensure that laws, regulations and policies are complied to. The policies provide a framework for relevant restrictions and privileges for use of information for every employ. The organization policies strive to e nsure that people and information are protected (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). This is normally accomplished by setting the rules for access of information for each and every employee use of information (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). Organizational policies assists the organization in complying with governmental policies in order to avoid violation of the latter’s policies. The policies include the rules which control the actions of information users and management. The policies include authorization privileges for use of information, need for probe, monitoring and investigation on the use of information. The policies also include information infringement consequences, the information security baseline position by the organization. The policies restrict users from accessing what they are not supposed to in order to reduce risk and tampering of information (Straub, Goodman & Baskerville 2008). Organizations need information security policies in order to eradicate or minimize any looming risks associated with the use of information. The eminent risks can be unauthorized access to organization information either internally or externally. The policies set the laws required before the use of any information or implementation of

Chronic Pain Management: An Insight Into Neuropathic Pain

Chronic Pain Management: An Insight Into Neuropathic Pain Many people suffer from chronic pain. In these patients, the most common wish is to be pain free. Even though modern Medicine has advanced at an unprecedented rate over the past century, approaches to chronic pain management is still not completely satisfactory. I have recently seen a patient who has been living with neuropathic pain for many years. Neuropathic pain is a type of chronic pain that is considered to be the most difficult to treat and manage, due to its complex nature in etiology and clinical manifestations. Despite the improvement in scientific understanding of pathogenesis of neuropathic pain, and utilization of newer pharmacological, surgical and cognitive approaches, diagnosing and treating neuropathic pain still poses a challenge clinically. This essay will be presenting a case history of a patient with neuropathic pain being treated at the Kent and Canterbury Hospital and this case will form the basis of discussion on the current understanding of neuropathic pain m echanisms and its management. Patient case Mrs L is a 58 years old medically retired office worker who has a 25-year history of multiple sclerosis. She has been coping well until 8yrs ago when her left foot suddenly experienced a shooting pain on weight bearing. At first, she was maintained on paracetamol and nurofen by her GP with limited pain relief and then referred to the podiatrist, where an ultrasound scan revealed the presence of Mortons neuroma (a benign swelling of the intermetatarsal plantar nerve causing neuropathic pain), which was causing intense pain with a severity 10/10 across her left forefoot. To help alleviate the pain, it was initially decided that surgically removing the neuroma could achieve adequate pain relief, but this was proven to be an unrealistic goal. During the surgical intervention period, she had altogether three neuromas removed on separate occasions, with additional shaving off the bones to reduce compression on the nerve and resultant inflammation. She was then referred to be managed at the pain clinic. While Mrs L has been under the care of the pain physicians, she was given local anaesthetics steroid infiltration into her forefoot, cryotherapy (ice cold packs applied to tibial nerve), guanethedine block, lumbar chemical sympathectomy (with midazolam fentanyl), acupuncture, lidocaine patches, capsaicin cream, duloxetine and co-codamol. Despite temporary pain relief provided by these therapies, there was not a long-lasting effect that allowed Mrs L to stay pain-free. Understandably, living with an excruciating pain chronically can severely damage an individuals psychological as well as physical health. She could no longer enjoy her hobbies, such as dancing and going to antic fairs; even daily activities such as shower would make her scream in pain. As a result, she became extremely depressed and suicidal. Currently, she is receiving a multidisciplinary input from her GP, the specialist pain physician, specialist pain nurse, clinical psychologist, and physiotherapists and is maintained on gabapentin and diclofenac for her neuropathic pain, citalopram for her slowly recovering depression and baclofen for controlling her ongoing multiple sclerosis symptoms. She is also regularly attending chronic pain management programs, through which she believes that she gains better appreciation for her condition and is in a better position to be in charge of her own symptoms. This case nicely demonstrates the difficulties encountered in clinical practice in treating chronic pain. First of all, neuropathic pain is exceptionally difficult to treat, with unpredictable outcomes; secondly, most methods of pain management can only provide symptomatic relieve of pain temporarily, rather than offering a permanent cure; thirdly, chronic pain is an extremely debilitating condition to live with and its psychological impact should not be underestimated; and finally, to enable the best pain management a multidisciplinary approach is evidently the most successful and gives the patient most control over their symptoms. What is pain? We are all familiar with the term pain. The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines pain as: An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. (IASP 2007). It is important to note that pain is a very subjective experience, which varies enormously from one individual to the next. To emphasize on the subjectivity of pain perception and the need for individualized approach to pain management, Margo McCaffery who specialized in pain management nursing in 1968 described pain as whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever the experiencing person says it does (Rosdahl Kowalski, 2007). It is undeniable that psychology and physiology are interwoven in the perception of pain. To understand pain, it is helpful to know what causes pain; as mentioned above, normally our perception of pain is triggered by a specific stimulus, such as hot, cold, or sharp objects, which could cause potential tissue irritation or injury. It is obviously advantageous in evolutionary terms to be able to sense the potential cause of injury and act via spinal reflexes to achieve self-protection, e.g. withdrawal of fingers from hot pan. This form of pain is called nociceptive pain, where the stimulus is known to be harmful in nature. This type of pain warns us of impending damage; therefore, it is regarded as the good type of pain. Of course, most of the long-term pains are certainly not good or friendly. What distinguishes between friend and foe in the field of pain is determined by the time-course, the intensity, the cause of and the social and economic consequences of the pain. An excellent example of a bad pain is neuropathic pain (Figure 1): Figure 1. Diagram showing the mechanisms behind the processing and perception of three different types of pain. Phase 1= nociceptive pain; Phase 2= inflammatory pain; Phase 3= neuropathic pain. (Cervero F, 2009) Neuropathic pains are resulted from disease or trauma to the central or peripheral nervous system; common causes include stroke, spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, surgery, diabetic neuropathy, and herpes zoster virus (Jensen et al., 2007). The Neuropathic Pain Special Interest Group (NeuPSIG) of the IASP has recently redefined neuropathic pain as pain arising as a direct consequence of a lesion or disease affecting the somatosensory system (Treede et al., 2008). As a result, neuropathic pain produces very unusual pain sensations beyond the range produced by the normal nociceptive system; these include spontaneous pain, reduced pain thresholds, and mechanical allodynia (Cervero F, 2009). As illustrated in figure 1, abnormal sensory processing is one of the landmarks for diagnosing neuropathic pains; patients often experience pain in the absence of any noxious stimuli (allodynia) and additionally produces an abnormally heightened sensory input, changing a non-noxious stimulus int o a painful stimulus, producing a state called hyperalgesia. Therefore, the main characteristic is the nearly complete lack of correlation between peripheral noxious stimuli and pain sensations perceived. There are many types of neuropathic pain (Table 1), which can be broadly classified into four groups based on their aetiology and anatomy: peripheral nervous system focal and multifocal lesions, peripheral nervous system generalized polyneuropathies, central nervous system lesions, and complex neuropathic disorders (Freynhagen Bennett, 2009). It is outside the scope of this essay to discuss these different types of neuropathic pain in further detail; rather, neuropathic pain as a distinct group of pain will be explored. Table 1. Examples of neuropathic pain syndromes (Freynhagen Bennett, 2009). How is neuropathic pain diagnosed? Despite its frequent occurrence, neuropathic pain still constitutes as a major diagnostic problem in clinical practice because it can present with a variety of signs and symptoms, which vary greatly even within one particular disease entity (e.g. in postherpetic neuralgia) (Geber et al, 2009). Clinical examination and expert judgment is still the best way to make a clinical diagnosis of neuropathic pain, despite the recent development of various screening tools, such as the LANSS questionnaire (Bennette, 2001) and the Neuropathic Pain Scale (Galer and Jensen, 1997) that assist in making a diagnosis. Bedside examinations for hyperalgesia and dysthesia include assessing the effect of the same stimuli on painful areas compared to the contralateral side or an unaffected site. Allodynia is demonstrated by the experience of pain when performing light touch with cotton wool; exaggerated painful response to pin prick suggests hyperalgesia, therefore lowered pin-prick threshold. These are the typical components that define a pain as neuropathic type. Patients are most likely to present with a mixture of pain types with a neuropathic component to it. It is important to identify the presence of such a component as the treatment recommendations are different for these. With the introduction of the new grading system for neuropathic pain by NeuPSIG group (Treede et al 2008), it is becoming increasingly recognized that chronic pain is often presented as a combination of different types of pains, rather than a clear-cut nociceptive or neuropathic type of pain. In Treede and colleagues new recommendation for the diagnosis of neuropathic pain, options of definite, probable or possible are available for the diagnosis of a component of neuropathic pain in the disease presentations in the clinical setting, which aims to aid more accurate diagnosis of neuropathic pain (Figure 2). Figure 2. Flow chart of grading system for neuropathic pain. The grading system is based on four criteria: pain distribution (criterion 1), the link between pain distribution and the patients history (criterion 2), confirmatory tests of neurologic status demonstrating positive or negative sensory signs confined to the innervation territory of the lesioned nervous structure (criterion 3), and further confirmatory diagnostic tests to identify the lesion or disease entity underlying the neuropathic pain (criterion 4). Criteria 1 and 2 must be met to initiate the working hypothesis of possible neuropathic pain. *Patient requires follow-up and/or additional confirmatory tests. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The point at which the diagnosis of possible neuropathic pain should be abandoned has not been defined (Treede et al 2008). Mechanisms of neuropathic pain Broadly speaking, neuropathic pain arises from the peripheral nervous system (ectopic impulse generation due to abnormal sodium channel expression), or from the central nervous system (central sensitization, disinhibition and plasticity) (Scadding, 2003). The key behind the generation of neuropathic pain is the abnormal neurological changes to the sensory system resulting in an abnormal hyperalgesic state, achieved through three processes: 1) the activation and sensitization of peripheral nociceptors, which are responsible for sensing peripheral noxious stimuli; 2) the abnormal amplification, rather than the suppression as in the normal states, of the central nervous system, known as central sensitization, caused by the strengthening of the synaptic connections between the peripheral and central nervous systems, producing a persistent pain state; 3) the change in the central actions of the undamaged afferents, so that a non-noxious tactile stimulus sensed by these receptors are converted into nociceptive information and processed as pain, rather than a light touch (Cervero F, 2009). This also further leads to secondary hyperalgesia, which means that instead of relieving the nociceptive pain by rubbing on the painful area (tactile stim ulus), the tactile movement of rubbing will actually produce the opposite effect of enhancing the existing pain. Figure 3. The pain signaling and modulation pathways. F Cx: frontal cortex; SS Cx: somatosensory cortex; Hyo: hypothalamus. (Ro Chang, 2005) As shown in Figure 3, the physiological pain mechanisms include the pain signaling pathway from nociceptors to peripheral nervous system to spinal dorsal horn cells to thalamus and finally to the cortex, and the pain control system from the cortext to periaqueductal grey to raphe nucleus to spinal dorsal horn (Ro Chang, 2005). In normal circumstances, there is a balance between signal transduction and pain modulation, therefore the individual recovers from that episode of pain. However, when this balance is disturbed, i.e. when there is a lesion within the primary somatosensory system, then the individual experiences neuropathic pain. The lesion may occur anywhere along the pathways of the somatosensory system, and it could be as a result of compression, inflammation, ischaemia, trauma, tumour invasion, nutritional deficits, or degenerative processes to the neurons (Ro Chang, 2005). Some of these important mechanisms will be discussed individually below. Local nerve injuries After the occurance of local nerve damage, in an attempt to repair, a neuroma forms at the proximal stump of the damaged nerve. A neuroma is a tangled mass of regenerating axons embedded in connective tissues. The axons within a neuroma not only fail to regenerate properly, but also develop abnormal electrical activities (England et al, 1996). This neuroma sprout then begins to fire abnormal signals with a heightened excitability, which stimulates regenerating C-fibers. After a period in the growth of these fibers, erratic impulse generator will develop, which sends abnormal signals into the central nervous system, perceived as dysthesia, parasthesia, itching or electrifying sensations (Liu et al, 2002). Sodium channel accumulation Sodium channel density is increased in areas of axons proximal to the injury site, as shown by England et al (1996) when the excised neuromas were studied from patients who suffered from painful traumatic neuromas (Figure 4). This specific type of sodium channel accumulated have a faster recovery time after inactivation, therefore, they are able to conduct ectopic impulses in neuropathic states. The ectopic activity then maintains the central sensitization process, resulting in great amplification of peripheral afferent signals. In neuropathic pain, there is a change in ionic channels composition and functions, such an accumulation of sodium channels which leads to hyperexcitability of these nerve terminals. These are found to be accumulating in neuropathic damaged areas of the nerve, such as in neuromas and demyelinated areas (Devor, 2006). In a normal axon, the transportation of sodium ion channels is preprogrammed via endoplasmic vesicles along the axons to be distributed in the n odes of Ranvier and peripheral sensory endings; there is a low density of sodium channels on the myelinated axonlemma. However, as a consequence to neuropathic damage, the set program of ionic channel settlement is disturbed, and these ion channels end up being located at a high concentration at the areas of neuromas, demyelination and sprouting (Aurilio et al, 2008). Such important roles played by sodium channels means that by blocking these channels, neuropathic pains could be reduced. Indeed, sodium channel blockers open up a major therapeutic channel for neuropathic pain treatment. Figure 4. Sodium channel immunocytochemistry of neuromas. (a, b, c) Sodium channel-specific immunoreactivity is present throughout the axons of th these neuromas. (d) Control showing the nonspecific immunofluorescence. Scale bar = 10 micrometer (England et al, 1996). Calcium channels and signaling in injury Calcium channels are also involved in contributing to neuropathic pains, as intracellular calcium determines the phosphorylation of the membrane proteins (Aurilio et al, 2008). The inflammatory neuropeptides, calcitonin gene-related peptides (CGRP), are released from injured nerve endings. They have a role in acting as co-transmitters in the spinal cord, therefore are involved in the central sensitization and hyperalgesic states found in neuropathic pain. An in vitro study identified that the release of CGRP entirely depended on the presence of extracellular calcium ions; this process involves particularly the N- and L-type calcium channels (Kress et al, 2001). Selective calcium channel blockers, such as gabapentin and lamotrigine may have significant potential in treating neuropathic pain. Cytokines in neuropathic pain Cytokines such as interleukins and tumour necrosis factors are well known mediators of inflammatory responses. Additionally, they are involved in neurogenic inflammations and are thought to play a role in the generation of neuropathic pains. In an established experimental model of neurogenic hyperalgesia and allodynia, mice with chronic constrictive injury to one sciatic nerve, the usage of interleukin-1 antagonist has been found to significantly yield in a reduction in the pain responses (Sommer et al, 1999) (Figure 5). Since TNF- Ã‚ ¡ immunoreactivitiy is found to be higher in nerve biopsies from patients with neuropathic pain, directing treatments to reducing the level of cytokines in the nervous system may also be helpful in relieving neuropathic pains (Empl et al, 2001). Indeed, combined neutralizing therapies against IL-1 and TNF- Ã‚ ¡ produced additive effects in experimental models (Schafers et al, 2001). Figure 5. Hyperalgesia to thermal stimuli following unilateral sciatic nerve injury in six groups of mice. a negative difference score is an indicator of hyperalgesia in the experimental/treatment limb. Hyperalgesia is present throughout the experimental period in the sham-treated group of mice. Treatment with anti-IL1 reduces hyperalgesia in a dose dependent manner (Sommer et al, 1999). Central inhibition inefficiency and sensitization The pain transmission system is under continuous inhibitory control from the brainstem centers, such as periaqueductal grey and locus coeruleus. Many studies have been conducted in laboratory animals for studying the pain mechanisms in neuropathic pain. It is found that in animals with neuropathic pain their central descending inhibition is nearly 50% lower than normal (Zimmermann 2001). Additionally, there is a hypersensitized central nervous system in neuropathic pain. Normally central sensitisation process would return back to baseline level when the tissue heals and inflammation subsides (Dworkin et al, 2003), but in neuropathic pain states this is not the case. The plasticity and sensitisation following peripheral nerve injury was thought to be caused by the long-term potentiation mechanism (Liu Sandkuhler, 1995). It is thought that after local nerve damage peripherally, growth factors such as nerve growth factors (NGF) can no longer be taken up into the dorsal ganglion neurons; this alters the nervous system at the transcription and protein synthesis level. NGF is a trophic molecule essential in the development maturation of the nervous system, and it is found to be elevated in conditions which pain is a predominant feature. This change to the composition to the nervous system also results in changes in the activities of aspartate and NMDA, which leads to an i nflux of calcium ions that indirectly contributes to the sensitisation and hyperalgesia of the spinal cord dorsal ganglion cells (Ro Chang, 2005). Peripheral inhibition inefficiency In addition, there also is a reduction in the response to endorphin molecules in patients with neuropathic pain than other pain mechanisms (Terenius 1979); therefore, there is a reduction in the sensation of pain relief centrally. Peripheral nerve lesion was simulated in rats by rhizotomy, a technique which severs the spinal roots, and this has demonstrated a decreased opioid receptor binding in the spinal cord (Zajac et al, 1989). Living with neuropathic pain From a patents perspective, pain is something they have to learn to live with, however bad it is. Patients who suffer from chronic pain not only have to go through the physical anguish exerted by the pain, but being in pain also hinders them from normal day to day functioning; from not being able to stay independent or taking care of themselves, to losing jobs, family and friends, lack of support and results in social isolation. A patient has once told me that: because what Im going through (pain) is not readily recognized by others, the way other people acted towards me put me under lots of frustration and made me socially unaccepted. It is crucial to bear in mind the wider impact of living with neuropathic pain when formulating a management plan for that individual. Not surprisingly, neuropathic pain is linked to significant reduction in the patients health-related quality of life (HRQoL) as well as creating substantial costs to the health service. It is reported that generally, patients with neuropathic pain have higher pain rating scores and lower HRQoL (Jenson et al, 2007). In a cross-sectional evaluation of the impact of neuropathic pain on patients and their quality of life conducted in the Spanish population, it was found that pain substantially interfered with work and family life in these patients. Over 95% of the 1519 patients recruited for this study had either neuropathic pain or a mixed neuropathic and nociceptive pain. Younger patients tend to report a lower quality of life than that of the elderly population in both the physical and mental components of life (Figures 6a 6b); possibly due to having fewer comorbidities in younger patients helps to exaggerate the perceived deleterious effects of neuropathic pain on their daily functioning. Using the Sheehans disability scale, the younger patients are also shown to have generally a higher perceived stress compared to the older patients (Galvez et al, 2007). It is important to analyse the effects that neuropathic pain exerts upon its sufferer, not only because we start to appreciate the level of impairment on the quality of life this chronic illness can cause to the patients, but also to further explore areas that could be perhaps better dealt with in terms of treatment (Jenson et al, 2007). As was reflected by the outcome of the Spanish study, 43% of patient had extreme disability; these included disability for work (51%), 47% for social life, 42% for family life. 38% of the patients also reported extreme stress and 19% perceived that they received little or no social support (Galvez et al, 2007). This shows that living with neuropathic pain is not just leading to physical disability, but also psychological and social dysfunctioning. Having known this nature of neuropathic pain, it important to consider both a pharmacological and psychosocial approach when prescribing treatment and formulating management plans. Figure 6. Scatter graph showing the linear relationship between age (years) and quality of life of the patient; physical (6a) and mental (6b) components, given as a standardised score relative to the reference Spanish population (SDS). SDS score is shown for each patient adjusted for type of neuropathic pain, center, and present pain intensity, age, and sex. SD, standard deviation; 95% CI, 95% confidence interval. (Galvez et al, 2007) b. a. Management of neuropathic pain The management of neuropathic pain involves a number of well-established pharmacological therapies, as well as utilizing the psychosocial aspects of the neuropathic pain nature fully to best control the patients pain symptoms. Non-Pharmacological approaches As the symptoms of pain are not just derived purely from a physical entity, psychotherapy should be considered as part of the management program for neuropathic pain. At an early stage, patients should be educated on the nature of the condition and to have realistic expectations with regards to treatment options; especially the current management for neuropathic pain is still mainly palliative in nature, with main aims to reduce symptomatic complaints of pain, but not a curative fix. To be able to alleviate the pain and achieve symptomatic relieve, even if only temporarily, may be the only attainable goal (CREST, 2008). Since non-pharmacological treatments have the lowest risks of adverse side effects these must be offered early. These include a combination of physiotherapy, occupational therapy, psychotherapy and pain management programs that are adjusted to the individuals psychological and physical needs. The main aims for physiotherapy is to provide pain relieve wherever possible, but also focuses on the restoration of normal functioning and helping the patient to return to normal physical activities, such as going back employment (Serpell et al, 2008). The low risk physiotherapy modalities include TENS (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) and acupuncture are offered, along with appropriate education, advice and exercise. Functional difficulties in areas of personal care, work and leisure could be managed best by the input of occupational therapists, who may work around the needs of the individual in adjusting the arrangements at home/work to best allow the patient to function despite t he pain. In Mrs Ls case, she had shower rails and hand-held tools to pick up distant objects without exerting strain on her back/affected limbs; these were extremely helpful to her. Of course, to maximize the outcome of pharmacological treatment, psychological therapy is essential in addressing the disability, emotional impacts and general life interruptions that are consequences of neuropathic pain. Apart from pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy is the best evidence-based therapy for the treatment of chronic pains like neuropathic pain (Morley et al, 2000). Additionally, patients living with chronic pain often suffer from other comorbidities. Frequently these are not treated alongside the treatment for the chronic pain, therefore, a limited effect of the pain treatment may be observed. Behavioral and psychiatric conditions are especially common in patients with neuropathic pain; recognizing and treating these will aid in improved quality of life and better pain relief overall (Fishbain, 1999). An recent eight-week study of the effects of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) on chronic pain-induced insomnia has found that patients who received CBT exhibited significant reductions in sleep latency, number of awakenings during sleep and overall quality of sleep (Jungquist et al, 2010). This offers further hope for patients who suffer from pain-related insomnias. Finally, the Pain Management Program is a multi-disciplinary approach to pain control that is tailored to each patients individual needs. Patients are typically referred to this program if they have been living with chronic pain for a number of years and suffer from significant physical, social and psychological functional difficulties. Many have become dependent on medications and acquired a number of side effects from these medications which are slowly eroding the quality of their lives. In the pain management programs, the goals are to reduce the subjective experience of pain, learning new coping strategies to control pain and improve physical and emotional functioning. Indeed, the pain management programs have been found to achieve a reduction in medication and enhanced rates of returning to work (CREST 2008 NRH 2009). Pharmacological therapies for neuropathic pain In most cases, patients with neuropathic pain will need to be started on analgesic medication after failure to respond to non-pharmacological treatments. Although opioid and non-opioid analgesics, such as codeine and diclofenac respectively, have a role in dampening pain transmission in within the CNS in neuropathic pain states, it is far more effective to target the sodium, calcium and NMDA receptors, which are altered during nerve injury. Generally speaking, the clinical effectiveness of these drugs is limited by their narrow therapeutic indexes, i.e. the difference between the number needed to treat (NNT) and the number needed to harm (NNH) is very small (Rice Hill, 2006). Neuropathic pain is appreciably a very complex condition and treatment for this can be a real challenge, as most patients do not respond to conventional analgesics. The main problems lie within the inadequate diagnosis, lack of understanding of the pain mechanisms, inappropriate selection of therapies, and insufficient management of comorbidities that could delay the response to neuropathic pain therapies (Ro Chang, 2005). Recently a review of the guidelines by OConnior Dworkin has resulted in the formulation of a stepwise approach to neuropathic pain management in primary care (Table 2). It is important to highlight that the first step of the management plan includes the identification of comorbidities, and relevant patient education as discussed above in the non-pharmacological managements of neuropathic pain to fully prepare the patient for adequate treatment. Table 2. Stepwise pharmacologic management of neuropathic pain (OConnor Dworkin, 2009) According to a recent review and recommendation by Dworkin et al, three lines of pharmacological treatment have been advised for neuropathic pain treatment. The first line treatments include tricyclic antidepressants (TCA), selective serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SSNRI), Ca2+ channel ligands (e.g. gabapentin pregabalin) and topically applied 5% lidocaine; second line treatments including opioid analgesics tramadol; and third line treatments are the other antiepileptics (e.g. Carbamazepine, lamortigine), other antidepressants (e.g. citalopram), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists and topically applied capsaicin (Dworkin et al, 2007 and OConnor Dworkin, 2009). TCAs The administration of TCAs such as amytriptyline and nortriptyline will benefit patients with neuropathic pain as TCAs have been shown consistently to be more efficacious than placebos in a number of randomized controlled trials (Saarto Wiffen 2007), and especially beneficial for patients who have a comorbidity of depression. They act via histaminic, muscarinic and serotoninergic receptors both peripherally and centrally. However, one should note that the possibility of cardiac toxicity hinders its administration in patients with pre-existing cardiac conditions, especially arrhythmias; they should also be avoided in patients who have suicide risk or poor impulse control (Serpell et al, 2008). A large, retrospective cohort study reported that there was an increased risk to sudden cardiac death at dosages higher than 100mg/day (Ray et al, 2004). Because the recommended dose of TCA can range from 25mg at the starting dose to 150mg/day as the maximum dose (Dworkin et al, 2007), administ ering TCA should be a cautious exercise. In general, TCAs should be started at low dosages, administered at night to minimize sedative effects, and titrated up slowly to be continued for 6-8 weeks to allow analgesic effects (OConnor Dworkin, 2009). SSRNIs SSNRIs such as duloxetine and venlafaxin are less effective than TCAs, but have a better safety profile. Duloxetine has consistently demonstrated efficiency in treating painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy (Dworkin et al, 2007), although its effects in other types of neuropathic pain have not been studies extensively, therefore its efficacy in those types of pain are still uncertain. Calcium channel ligands Calcium channel ligands, e.g. gabapentin and pregabalin, bind to the voltage-gated calcium channels at the ÃŽÂ ±2- Ã‚ ¤ subunit to modulate neurotransmitter release from presynaptic nerve terminals (Figure 7). Both drugs have been shown to be efficacious South Africa: Language and Culture South Africa: Language and Culture What is South African Culture? South Africa is known as the rainbow nation as it has complex and diverse cultures. (South African Languages and Cultures. It is a melting pot of culture; here are a few cultural aspects to admire about South Africa: Mapungubwe, Limpopo Province, is one of the richest archaeological sites in Africa. Two globally important battles namely, The Anglo Boer War and the Anglo Zulu War were both fought on South African soil. Since the freedom from Apartheid, dance has become a prime means of artistic expression. The Magaliesberg mountain range is said to be the oldest mountain range on earth. The Drakensberg mountain range runs the length of the country and is a Unesco World Heritage site. The Vredefort Dome is the oldest and largest visible meteorite impact site in the world. South Africa has a celebration for every event, place, art form, food, drink and agricultural commodity. South Africa has a wide variety of arts and crafts, as well as a wide range of craftwork styles; tribal designs, Afro-French wirework, wood carvings, world-class pottery and bronze casting, stained glass, basket weaving, clay and stone sculpting, dung paper and waste ornaments. The Drakensberg mountain range is the worlds largest art gallery and is a monument to the San Bushmen. Jukskei, a game which involves a player throwing a wooden pin at a peg in the ground. It has been identified as one of the seven indigenous games that should be encouraged and developed. After the Apartheid era, the youth of South Africa started to find their own voice in a style of music called Kwaito. Nguni cattle, they are indigenous to South Africa and might possibly be the most beautiful cattle in the world with their variously patterned and multicoloured hides. The Owl House, Nieu Bethesda, is a fascinating world of sculptures made from concrete and glass. The Cradle of Humankind has one of the worlds richest concentrations of hominid fossils. The Quagga, was extinct but has been rebred. It is a zebra-like animal but only has stripes on the front half of its body. Mark Shuttleworth was the first African in space. South Africa is home to seven Unesco World Heritage sites. South African cultural villages allow visitor to experience firsthand the cultures and traditions of our country, including food, drink and accommodation. South Africa produces 3.1% of the worlds wine and ranks number nine in overall volume production. The above text was referenced from: The A to Z of South African Culture 2010:1 During the Apartheid era, the government divided this diverse country into four population groups, namely white, black, coloured and Asian. (South African culture is impossible to capture in a nutshell, as the country is home to a rich variety of cultural groups of diverse ethnic and national origins. [sa]) These population groups were grouped as follows: White: English, Afrikaans, Jewish, Portuguese, Greek and Lebanese. Black: tribal groups, namely Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Tswana and Sotho. Coloured: people of mixed origin, mainly Afrikaans speaking and also a lot closer to the white cultural trends. Asian: people of Indian decent. The above text was referenced from: South African culture is impossible to capture in a nutshell, as the country is home to a rich variety of cultural groups of diverse ethnic and national origins. [sa] South Africa has eleven official languages, namely English, Afrikaans, Tsonga, Zulu, Tswana, Xhosa, Venda, Swazi, Southern Sotho, Ndebele and Sepedi. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) South Africas language distribution is as follows: Figure: Language distribution chart (South Africa Info) Xhosa Language: The word Xhosa is derived from the Khoisan language, which means angry men. South African Languages and Cultures [sa] There are about eighteen percent of Xhosa speaking people in South Africa, and are mainly found in the Eastern Cape. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) This makes Xhosa the second most spoken language in South Africa. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) There are nine Xhosa speaking groups, some chiefdoms are larger than others, but there is conformity among them, the conformity can be seen in the homestead layouts. (Magubane 1998:10) Culture: The Xhosa speaking people were one of the first chiefdoms to be exposed to European explorers, hunters, traders, missionaries, soldiers and colonial administrators. (Magubane 1998:12) This exposure therefore altered the culture of the Xhosa people. Xhosa marriage is a polygynous affair as the chiefs and wealthy men, who had lots of cattle married more than one woman and in some instanced has as many as four wives. (Magubane 1998:20) These wives were distinguished in rank according to different houses. (Magubane 1998:20) The Great Wife was responsible in bearing a son, and of course heir who would eventually take over his fathers possessions, i.e. cattle. (Magubane 1998:24) Labola is a big part of the Xhosa culture, labola also meant that different groups could forge alliances as marriage within a clan is prohibited. (Magubane 1998:28) In a modern day Xhosa marriage negotiation it is common that money instead of cattle will be accepted. (Magubane 1998:25) Traditional rituals are performed throughout the life-cycle of the Xhosa people, from birth to puberty, marriage to menopause and filly to death. (Magubane 1998:32) One of these rituals is that of male initiation through circumcision. This ritual came about as men had to be circumcised to become a warrior, and had to be a warrior before he could marry. (Magubane 1998:33) Architecture: Dwellings consisted of a circular frame of poles and saplings, which were bent and bound in the shape of a beehive and thatched from top to bottom with grass. (Magubane 1998:18) this structure was then plastered with a mixture of mud and dug to provide adequate insulation. (Magubane 1998:18) screened off cooking areas, had an earthen oven for baking. (Magubane 1998:18) Zulu Language: Zulu people form the largest ethnic group in South Africa (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) and therefore Zulu is one of the most spoken languages in South Africa and is also understood by half of the South African inhabitants. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) South African English has adapted and was also inspired by many of the Zulu words, and therefore incorporate it into the English language. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Culture: The Zulu nation arose in the 16th century; the Zulu warrior Shaka raised the nation to prominence in the 19th century. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) The classic novel Chaka, by Thomas Mofolo, reinvents king Shaka into a heroic figure. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) The current monarch is King Goodwill Zwelithini. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) the present kings powers are essentially symboliche carries a sacred axe on important state occasions and he presides over key rituals, (Magubane 1998:37) Zulu children are exposed to nature at an early age which encompasses a deep understanding and empathy for the environment they live in. (Magubane 1998:45) Traditional foods include amasi (curds of milk) which is eaten either with maize meal or vegetables. Maize meal is either boiled into a thick porridge or eaten with vegetables. Meat was only eaten on special occasions, such as a wedding. (Magubane 1998:47) The Zulus are very crafty. The women are responsible for mat-making, beadwork and pottery. The men do woodwork and specialise in spoons, meat trays and milk pails which are crafted out of one piece of wood. (Magubane 1998:47) Traditional medicines in the Zulu culture are ancient, these medicines are divided into two parts, the Traditional Herbalist who administers medicine made from plants and animals, and the Diviner who smells out the complaints using bones, shells, seeds or other artefacts. (Magubane 1998:61) A category in the Diviners is the isangoma, who is a medium that makes contact with the ancestral spirits and prescribes medicine according to their dictates. (Magubane 1998:62) Music, song and dance have always been important in Zulu culture as it helps maintain a sense of group solidity especially in times of strees, joy and change. (Magubane 1998:62) The Zulu society had many stringed instruments, such as the uGubu which stringed bow with a calabash attached to the end. (Magubane 1998:62) Architecture: The extended homestead was roughly circular in form and was build on sloping ground facing east wherever possible, with the slope falling away to the main entrance, so that the chief dwelling would be on the highest ground. (Magubane 1998:40) In the centre of this homestead would be the cattle byre which is also linked to the temple, which is where traditional rituals would take place. (Magubane 1998:40) The building of these dwellings were the mens job and would often be a social event where the women would brew beer and neighbours, even passers-by, would come and lend a hand in erecting these dwellings. (Magubane 1998:43) The dwellings were either beehive or dome shaped. Saplings would be embedded into a circular dug trench; the saplings were then bent over and tied down to create framework which would then be tightly thatched. (Magubane 1998:43) There were no windows but the door was very low, people had to entre on their hands and knees. This door was then closed at night by means of a wicker door that was fastened with a cross-stick. (Magubane 1998:43) Afrikaans Language: Afrikaans is spoken by a majority of South Africans, either as a first or second language. Afrikaans is a rich cultural languages with much heritage from the Dutch, Afrikaans even means Africa in Dutch. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Afrikaans is mainly spoken by white Afrikaners, coloured South Africans and a section of the black population. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) Venda Language: Venda is also known as Luvenda or Tshivenda and is mostly spoken in the Northern parts of South Africa. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) The people who speak Venda have a Royal Family and show women great respect, therefore women are allowed to become Queens and Chiefs of their own tribes (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Culture: For a Venda person, music is one of the most important aspects to their culture, especially drum beats. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) They are hard working people but after working all day on a field, there is always music, a few drinks and dancing. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) A drum, named Ngoma Lungundu, is the centural feature in Venda culture. (Magubane 1998:82) Status and power are expressed through music, dance, and song. (Magubane 1998:87) Venda people use many musical instruments, even instruments that have vanished from other cultures in Africa; they use xylophones, thumb pianos, reed flutes, and three different types of drums. (Magubane 1998:87) The Venda pottery style was established in the 14th and 15th Century. (Magubane 1998:82) The young Venda men and old Venda men were highly regarded, as the Venda people believe that the young men are still close to the ancestors, while the old men are about to rejoin the ancestors. (Magubane 1998:84) Initiation played a big role in Venda culture, as with most South African cultures. (Magubane 1998:84) Initiation ceremonies were held for the many stages in life and would be made possible through external forces such as the ancestors, good and bad spirits, as well as witches. (Magubane 1998:84) A python, in Venda culture, is associated with fertility and the movements of a baby in the womb. (Magubane 1998:87) Venda women were held in much regard, unlike most African women. (Magubane 1998:89) venda women were in absolute control if in her courtyard, and elderly women played an important role in Venda society by telling the children traditional stories. (Magubane 1998:89) Venda women are able to own property and can become ruler of a clan if there was no male heir. (Magubane 1998:89) Architecture: Traditional Venda villages are surrounded by stone walls, which can still be seen near/under cliffs. (Magubane 1998:84) These villages are laid out so that the King is on the highest part of the land, with his wives and children around him, who are then surrounded by the rest of the inhabitants, who will protect the King and his family if there were to be a threat. (Magubane 1998:84) Ndebele Language: Ndebele language is split into two chief dialects namely, Southern Ndebele and Northern Ndebele, but the more common spoken dialect is Southern Ndebele. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Ndebele is only spoken at home, and therefore only moves through generations, therefore it is thought to be a vanishing language. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Culture: To tourists, the Ndebele culture is best known for their vibrant geometric patterns which decorate their houses, clothes and can also be seen in their beadwork. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) These vibrant patterns embrace a variety of forms and symbols, such as natural objects, geometric forms and now days letters of the alphabet, numbers, representations of urban buildins, windmills and aeroplanes. (Magubane 1998:76) Ndebele life is characterized, life many other African groups, by the spirit world. (Magubane 1998:67) The spirit world is made up of the Ndebele ancestors who require constant sacrificing to keep them placid. (Magubane 1998:67) The Ndebele society is patriarchal; this was intensified by the white farmers who looked to Ndebele family labour where the men had to work for the white farmer. (Magubane 1998:70) The Ndebele man then moved away from the white farms and started their own businesses as taxi drivers or builders. (Magubane 1998:70) The Ndebele women would work as domestic servants in Pretoria but always returned home to look after the children and set up the homestead. (Magubane 1998:70) While the women were at the homestead, they would be supported by their husbands as well as making and selling beadwork, mats and dolls. (Magubane 1998:70) There is much deliberation on if the adornments worn by the Ndebele women are strictly for their own sensuality or whether their husbands want their wealth to be shown on their wives. (Magubane 1998:76) The most popular adornemnts worn by Ndebele women are the beaded wire hoops and/or copper or brass rings that they wear around their necks, arms, legs and stomach. (Magubane 1998:77) Sepedi Language: Sepedi is also known as Sesotho or Northern Sotho. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) But this language is best known for their wedding ceremonies. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Culture: In the Sepedi culture, it is well known that the brides father ask the groom for lebola. Lebola is item/s exchanged for their daughter, for example money or livestock. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) The wedding is held at the brides or grooms home, but before the ceremony, the bride (dressed in a cows hide dress) has to go down to the river and collect water and wood for the ceremony. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Once the ceremony is done, a sheep is then slaughtered in the back yard and the meat is equally divided between both families. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Setswana Language: Setswana is commonly known as Tswana, which is related to the other Sotho languages. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Setswana was mostly spoken in Botswana, but migrated into North Western South Africa. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) Dr. Robert Moffat built the first school in Botswana and realised that he needed to use and write Setswana in his teachings, therefore Setswana was the first Sotho language to be in a written format. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) Culture: Setswana is part of the Sotho-Tswana division, which use totems to contact their ancestors and these totems symbolise the sacred creature which is not to be hunted, the Setswana totem is a fish. (Magubane 1998:11) In the Setswana culture, wealth is measured by how many cattle they have in their possession; this is then ranked and put into a document called the Setswana Forbes, which lists all the names of the wealthy Setswana people. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Setswana culture is also widely known for their Traditional healers, or sangomas, which play an important role in their culture. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Southern Sesotho Language: Southern Sotho is spoken by more than five million South African inhabitants. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) It is a very complicated language, but once you get to understand it, it is a beautiful language. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Sesotho originally was spoken in Lesotho, but moved into South Africa. It was also one of the first African languages, along with Setswana and Zulu, to be put into a written form as well as into literature. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) Culture: Southern Sotho is part of the Sotho-Tswana division, which use totems to contact their ancestors and these totems symbolise the sacred creature which is not to be hunted, the Southern Sotho totem is a crocodile. (Magubane 1998:10-11) The Southern Sotho culture is one that believes strongly that Children benefit from serving their elders. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Marriages are more often than not pre-arranged but in todays day and age, this has become less of normality as they are now able to pick their life partners. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Swati Language: The Swati language is also known as the Swazi language. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) It is a very similar language to the Ndebele, Xhosa and Zulu language, and often gets confused with these languages. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) The language and culture of the Swati was highly influenced by the Zulus. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Culture: The Swatis have many traditional events and the culture is one of colourful outfits with red feathers, carrying shields and wearing multicoloured necklaces. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) The Reed dance festival is one of their great festivals. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) The ceremony is held for eight days which runs through the end of August till the beginning of September. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) This ceremony is for all unmarried women and is to protect the womens chastity (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Tsonga Language: The Tsonga language is spoken throughout southern Africa. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Tsonga is a language that does not use the English alphabet, but instead the Latin alphabet. (South African Languages and Cultures [sa]) Therefore it is a difficult language to learn or understand. Culture: The first Tsonga speaking people were traders of cloth and beads for ivory, copper and salt that was eventually joined by co-linguists pushed from the coast by Nguni raiders. Magubane 1998:90 The birth of a child is a great time for all Tsonga speaking people. (Magubane 1998:95) Babies are doctored with medicines and decorated with charms and beaded bangles. Magubane 1998:95 A Tsonga marriage is not just a relationship of two individuals, but an agreement and new relationship between the two families. (Magubane 1998:96) There is a sacrifice before the bride leaves her family and her ancestors to join her new family, her new family will now take her in as one of them and she will have to learn their etiquette and rules of behaviour. (Magubane 1998:96) Most of the agricultural work was done by women, but the harvesting was done in collaboration with the surrounding communities, with the owner/host of the land providing beer and refreshments therefore making it a festive occasion. (Magubane 1998:98) Venison was a vital part in Tsonga diet, so was fish as fishing was an important community activity. (Magubane 1998:98) Tsonga men have through the ages started working in the South African mines and send money home to their families. (Magubane 1998:99) They have to spend copious amounts of time on busses and trains, and have to live in hostels near to the mining towns. (Magubane 1998:99) The Tsonga people are able to play wind, stringed and percussion instruments, the string instruments being the most important. (Magubane 1998:99) The two other instruments they are able to play, but fall out of the mentioned catagories is the hand piano and the xylophone. (Magubane 1998:99) The stringed instruments they are able to play: Vibrating Bow Stringed bow attached to a calabash Hollow reed bow Wire stringed bow with a thickened handle plucked with a flat piece of wire The above text was reference from: (Magubane 1998:99) The wind instruments they are able to play: Cross flute Shepherds pipe Antelope horn trumpet The above text was reference from: (Magubane 1998:99) The percussion instruments they are able to play: Tambourines Drums The above text was referenced from: (Magubane 1998:99) Architecture: A Tsonga homestead comprises of the man, his wife/wives, their children and their sons families. (Magubane 1998:94) The houses are cylindrical with earthen walls and conical thatched or reed roofs. Magubane 1998:94 The homestead is generally circular with a central cattle byre and a main entrance on the eastern side, there may also be sub-entrances on the side of the water and fields. (Magubane 1998:94) English Language: South African English is rich and peculiar as it is influenced by most of the other ten languages. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) For example: ..cars stop at robots, not traffic lights. A pickup truck is a bakkie, sneakers are takkies, a hangover is a babbelas, (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) English is understood across South Africa and is generally the chosen language in business, politics and media. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) English is only spoken by 10% of South Africans, but is the primary language tought at primary, secondary and tertiary educational centres. (Languages of South Africa 2010:1) What artefacts are unique to each culture? Archaeology is important as it is able to tell us when and where people settled and how they lived. Archaeology is also able to link different cultural groups through the artefacts they leave behind. (Magubane 1998:8) Archaeological time periods and artefacts found from each period: Early Stone Age stone artefacts such as hand axes and cleavers. Middle Stone Age stone artefacts such as points and scrapers, as well as grindstones. Later Stone Age new technologies made way for the bow and arrow, and traps and snares. Early Iron Age new technology made way for hoes, axes, decorative pots and bowls, ornate metal work and complex terracotta sculptures. The above text was referenced from: Magubane 1998:8 The Bantu-speaking people have been thought to emerge from the Iron Age communities; the bantu-speaking people are divided into two groups, the Nguni speaking and the Sotho-Tswana speaking people. (Magubane 1998:10) These two groups are linguistically and culturally distinct (Magubane 1998:10) What is a Boutique Hotel? There are a number of characteristics and attributes that constitute a Boutique Hotel. Firstly a Boutique hotel is much smaller than a chain-hotel as the maximum amount of rooms a Boutique Hotel has is one-hundred. (Nobles Thompson 2001:1) Atmosphere is very important in a Boutique Hotel as it creates a memorable experience. (Nobles Thompson 2001:1) Management and staff need to anticipate guests needs and wants, knowing what a guest wants, when they want it and how they want it. (Nobles Thompson 2001:1) Unique and interesting themes, design and architecture. (What is a Boutique Hotel? 2003 2010) Stylish appearance (What is a Boutique Hotel? 2003 2010) Equally appropriate for business, honeymoon or vacation. (What is a Boutique Hotel? 2003 2010) Target market for Boutique Hotels is 25 55 age range and middle to upper income level. (What is a Boutique Hotel? 2003 2010) Boutique hotels offer a completely unique experience. Boutique Hotels can be hip and happening or historic in theme. (What is a Boutique Hotel? 2003 2010) Boutique Hotels offer comforts, such as bathrobes and fireplaces; spa-like services, such as healthy food choices, mind and body cleansing; the latest technology, as well as on-site dining, bar and lounge areas that are open to the public. (What is a Boutique Hotel? 2003 2010) How do you reuse an old building to create a new exciting interior? By preserving historic buildings and by updating the building and its interior for a new use (Bijelic 2006:1), the population and generations to come will be able to understand and appreciate South African heritage and culture. (The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1) By reusing existing buildings and transforming them into a new purpose, the architects and designers are in essence being environmentally responsible. (The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1) Existing buildings are in essence energy efficient as they already exist and therefore there is no need to create new building materials, which leave a carbon footprint behind. (The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1) Minor modification to the exterior or interior of these historical/existing buildings are possible and plausible as this will then create a new use for these buildings as well as upgrade these buildings in order to meet the modern building requirements and codes. (The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1) Converting historical buildings to meet modern demands might be a challenge, but there are advantages as clients will eventually realise the potential financial, cultural and marketing advantages of preserving architectural history. (Bijelic 2006:1) Practical benefits of preserving existing/historical buildings: Preservation of the history and authenticity. Increases the commercial value of the building and its ornaments/material which are more often than not high quality and not affordable. Sustainable building practice as there is less construction and demolition, and less need for new building materials as the existing infrastructure will be used. Energy efficient as there will be no energy waste on demolition and new construction. The above text was referenced from: The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1 Identify, Investigate, Develop, Execute and Educate are the five basic steps of preserving a historical building. (The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1) The four treatment approaches for historic buildings are: Preservation maintenance, stabilisation and repair of existing historic materials. Rehabilitation to alter or add to historic property. Restoration depicting the property at a particular period of time while erasing the evidence of other eras. Reconstruction re-creates non-surviving parts of the property. The above text was referenced from: The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1 Before preserving or reusing an existing building, the architect and/or designer needs to make sure that the original function of the building and the proposed new function of the building coincide and/or are compatible in order to reduce the deconstruction of the historic materials and ornaments. (The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1) In order to maintain the integrity of the historical building, the following preservation design goals need to be implemented: Update building systems this requires striking a balance between original building features and accommodating the new technologies and equipment. Life safety and security needs accommodate new functions, changes in technology and improved standards of protection. Comply with accessibility requirements provide access for persons with disabilities while meeting preservation goals. The above text was referenced from: The WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee 2010:1 Relevant Codes and Standards Previous research that has been done on the topic Field Research Data capturing I have sent out questionnaires to a number of architectural firms and travel agencies, as well as the Department of Tourism, Department of Home Affairs, The City Council of Johannesburg and the City Council of Tshwane. Explain in detail who, what, where, how and why The above mentioned parties will be able to advise me on (1) if there is a need for Boutique hotels in South Africa and (2) how to go about reusing/renovating existing buildings in order to preserve the environment as well as create a new, fresh Boutique hotel with the correct regulations.